AjourneyofaThousandmilesbeginswithasinglestep.Getoriginalcopy0996564395/0881399843Page1
AjourneyofaThousandmilesbeginswithasinglestep.Getoriginalcopy0996564395/0881399843Page2
TOPIC1:DEVELOPMENT
Developmentreferstoasustainedelevationofanentiresocietyandsocialsystem towardsa
betterormorehumanelife.
Objectives
1.Ithelpstoincreasetheavailabilityofbasiclifesustaininggoodse.g.food,shelter,health
andprotection.
2.Ithelpstoimprovequalityoflife.
3.Itraisesthelevelsoflivingbyprovidinghigherincome,morejobs,bettereducationand
greaterhelptohumanvalues.
4.Ithelpstoexpandtherangeofeconomicandsocialservicesavailabletopeopleand
countriesbyendingexternaldependence.
Aspectsofdevelopment
1.Political
2.Social
3.Economic
4.Technological
Politicaldevelopment
Itreferstochangingandimprovingthewayacountryisgoverned.
Indicators
1.Politicalawarenessandcitizenparticipationwhichmeanpeopleareinformedabout
politicaldevelopmentsintheircountryandhenceparticipateactivelythroughvotingin
elections,debatesandattendingcivicmeetings.
2.Politicaltolerancewhichmeanspeopleinpowershouldallowotherstosaytheirviews
andallowviewsfromracial,religiousandpoliticalgroups.
3.Abilitytochooseownleaderspeacefullyinanelection.
4.Effectivepoliticalinstitutionsbypromotingthewelfareofpeople,holdingparliamentary
sessionsfrequentlyandconsultingtheelectoratethroughmembersofparliament.
5.Transparencyandaccountabilitywherepeopleshouldbeawareofwhatishappeningand
decisionsmadeaswellasreasonsformakingdecisions.
6.Controlofabuseofpowerorauthorityforpersonalgainbystructuringmethodsthatlimit
powersofdifferentarmsofthegovernment.
7.Respectforandprotectionofhumanrightsofcitizens.
8. Theruleoflawshouldberespectedbyeveryoneregardlessoftheirstatus.
9.Multipartysystem ofgovernmenttoallow oppositionfrom otherpartiesthatcheck
activitiesoftherulingparty.
Positiveeffectsofpoliticaldevelopment
1.Increasedawarenessofpeopleinpoliticalaffairs.
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2.Peopleknowtheirrightsandrespectotherpeoplesrights.
3.Peoplearetolerantofoneanother.
4.Increasedparticipationinlocaldevelopmentwork
5.Increasedparticipationinparliamentaryandlocalgovernmentelections.
MajorpoliticaldevelopmentsinMalawisince1963
1.February,1963-NyasalandattainedselfgovernanceandKamuzuBandabecamethefirst
PrimeMinister.
2.6
th
July,1964-NyasalandattainedindependenceandchangeditsnametoMalawi.
3.In1971-allotherpartieswerebannedexceptMCPandKamuzuBandawasmadelife
presidentofMalawiCongressParty.
4.8
th
March,1992-CatholicbishopscirculatedapastorallettercalledLivingourFaithwhich
criticizedKamuzusgovernment.
5.6
th
April,1992-ChakufwaChihanaopenlychallengedKamuzuBandaandtheoneparty
ruleandadvocatedformultiparty.
6.June,1993-areferendum washeldonthereintroductionofmultipartysystem.The
majorityvotedformultipartysystemagainstonepartyrule.
7.17
th
May,1994-multipartygeneralelectionswereheldandBakiliMuluzibecamethestate
president.
8.1999-BakiliMuluziwasre-electedasthestatepresident.
9.2004-BinguwaMutharikawaselectedthestatepresidentofMalawiundertheUDFticket.
10.2009-BinguwaMutharikawasre-electedunderDPP.
Socialdevelopment
Itmeansthegeneralwellbeingofpeoplewithinasocialsystem.
Indicators
1.Infrastructuresuchasroads,schoolsandmarkets.
2.Infantmortalityratewhichisthenumberofbabieswhodiebeforetheyareoneyearoldof
every1000babiesborn.
3.Lifeexpectancywhichistheaveragenumberofyearsapersoncanexpecttolive.Itdoes
notmeanthateveryonelivestothisage,thatisotherswilllivelongerandsomewilldie
beforethisage.
4.Adultliteracylevelswhichisthepercentageofadults(peopleabove15years)whocan
readandwrite.
5.Schoolenrolmentswhichisthepercentageofpeopleattendingschool.
Localsocialdevelopmentinitiatives
Theseareprojectsinitiatedbythecommunitysuchasconstructionofclinicsandroads.
Positiveimpact
1.Peopleareequippedwithleadershipskills.
2.Peopleareequippedwithnegotiationskills.
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3.Lesspressureonexistingsocialservices.
4.Improvedstandardsofliving.
5.Cooperationofthepeopleintheareaorbuildastrongcivilsociety.
6.Buildconfidenceandasenseofempowerment.
Economicdevelopment
Itreferstoexpandingthecountryswealthoreconomy.
Indicators
1.Educationalindicatorse.g.highadultliteracyrate,highschoolenrolment,lowschooldrop
outrate(percentageofpeoplewhodropoutofschoolbeforecompletingaparticular
cyclelikeprimaryorsecondary).
2.Healthindicatorse.g.percentageofpeoplewithaccesstosafewaterandsanitation
(protectedpitlatrinesandflushtoilets),lowinfantmortalityrate,lowmaternalmortality
rate(numberofwomenwhodieduringpregnancyorchildbirthexpressedper100,000
livebirths)andlifeexpectancy.
3.Lowcrimerate
4.Infrastructuree.g.presenceofschools,hospitals,financialinstitutionsandroads.
5.GrossDomesticProduct(GDP)andGrossNationalProduct(GNP)GDPmeansthevalue
oftotaloutputproducedbyfactorsofproductioninacountryregardlessofnationalityor
whoownsthefactors.GNPmeansthetotaldomesticandforeignoutputbyresidentsofa
country.Therefore,ifthereisgrowthinGDPandGNP,economyisalsogrowing.
6.GNPpercapitawhichisGNPdividedbytotalpopulation.Ifacountrydoesnotproducea
lot,theincomeperpersonwillbelow.Wherethepopulationisbig,thetotalproductofa
countryhastobedividedamongalotofpeoplesoGNPpercapitawillbelow.
7.Anunemploymentlevelthatisifacountryhaseconomicpoliciesthatpromotecreationof
employmentopportunity,ithelpsinalleviationofpoverty.
Factorsthatcontributetoeconomicdevelopment
1.Marketliberalizationistheremovalofbarrierstotradee.g.tradepolicies.Thisbrings
morepeopleandcompaniesthatcontributetoeconomicprogress.
2.Privatizationistheprocessofchangingtheactivityfrom thepublicsectortotheprivate
sector.Thisencouragesprivateownershipofproductiveresourceshenceordinarypeople
ownwealththroughsharesinprivatecompanies.
3.Industrializationmeansexpansionofthecountryscapacityforproducingsecondary
goodsandservices.Thiscreatesmoreemploymentopportunitiesforpeople.
4.Importsubstitutioniswhenthegovernmentattemptstoreplaceimportswithdomestically
producedgoodsandservices.Thisboostsindustrialization.
5.Urbanizationisthegrowthoftownsineconomyanddemography(population)brought
aboutbyindustrialization.Thisisbecausemanypeopleareneededtoworkinexpanding
industries.
6.Taxationlevelsthatarelowattractmorecompaniesandindividualstoinvestinacountry.
Inadditiontaxrevenuefrom privateindividualsandcorporationsisusedtofinancethe
governmentinstitutionshenceimprovingtheeconomy.
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7.Peaceandstabilityattractsmanyinvestorssincetheyareassuredofsecurity.
8.Availabilityofbothfinancialandnon-financialresourceshelpsinfundingprojectsaswell
asassistingindevelopment.
9.Managementofresourcesshouldbegoodtoachievesustainabledevelopment.
10.Freetradewhichisremovingbarrierstofreeflowofgoodsbyreducingimportandexport
dutiessothatpeoplehaveafreechoiceofgoodstheywanttopurchase.
Technologicaldevelopment
Itreferstosciencetoproductionoruseofscientificknowledgetomakethingse.g.machines
andmedicine.
Indicators
1.Telephone
2.Computer
3.Radio
4.Television
5.Cellphone
6.Moneycard
7.Aeroplanes
8.Cars
Factorsthatcontributetotechnologicaldevelopment
1.Free market economy which is increasing liberalization of trade especially in
communicationstechnology.Morebusinessisdoneontheinternet.
2.Developingphysicaland localtechnologysupportinfrastructurethatisestablishing
institutionsandcompaniesthatworkonnewtechnologies.
3.Educationandtrainingreferstotheprovisionofscientificknowledgeandmethodsby
variouseducationalinstitutions.
4.Politicalwillmeansthegovernmentallowingvariousindustriestodobusinessand
introducingnewideas.
5.Reductionofimportandexporttaxes.
6.Raisingawarenesstothepublicabouttheimportanceoftechnologicaldevelopment.
Countriesthataretechnologicallyadvanced
U.S.A.,Japan,GreatBritain,Germany,France,Australia,Canada,SouthAfrica,RepublicofChina
andIndia.
Milestonesintechnologicaldevelopmentinthe20
th
Century
1.1901-Firstradiosignalwassentacross1700milesacrossoceanusingradiowaves.It
wassentbyMorsecode(asystemofdotsanddasheswhichstoodforletters)
2.1903HenryFordbrothershadtoflyinanaeroplaneforthefirsttime.
3.1913HenryFordusinganassemblylineproducedcheapmotorcars.
4.1920AradiostationinU.S.A.calledKDKAbroadcastthefirstradioprogrammeusing
Marconispreviouswork.
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5.1920s–CompaniesstartedproducinghomeappliancesusingHenryFordsmethodse.g.
vacuumcleaners,fridgesandwashingmachines.
6.1926–FirsttelevisionprogrammewasbroadcastbyBritishBroadcastingCorporation
(BBC)inUK.ThemaininventorwasJohnLogieBaird.
7.1945TheworldsfirstcomputerwasusedattheUniversityofPennsylvaniaintheU.S.A
whichwasverybigandhad6000manualswitches.
8.1945–FirstatomicbombwasmanufacturedinU.S.A.anddroppedinHiroshima,Japan.
Acheapandtinytransistorwasinventedtobeusedinradiosandlaterincomputers.This
reducedthesizeofcomputers.
9.1969ApolloastronautslandedonthemoonusingrocketdevelopedinU.S.A.
10.Mid1970s Micro processors(smalland cheapintegratedcircuitsto beusedin
thousandsofproducts)wereinvented.Thismadethepersonalcomputerrevolution
possible.
11.1981Americansstartedspaceshuttlewithaseriesofsatellitesandspacecraftwere
propelledintospacebyrockets.Theywereusedtocarryoutresearchandimprove
systemsofsatellitecommunication.
12.1992 InventionoftheinternetbytheAmericanmilitary.Thissystem ofcomputer
networksbecameknownasWorldWideWeb(www).
Positiveimpactoftechnologicaldevelopment
1.Improvementin transportwhich make people traveleasier,access goods,find
employment,reacheducationalinstitutionsandsellgoodsandservices.
2.Improvedcommunicationsthroughtelephones,faxande-mail.
3.Accesstoentertainmentandinformationthroughradioandtelevision.
4.Lessenedworkpressureathomeduetodomesticapplianceslikecookers.
5.Expansionofbusinessthroughadvertisementandsellinggoodsontheinternet.
6.Reduceddependencyonmanuallabourandmassliteracy.
7.Improvementineducationsincepeoplecanaccessandlearndifferentissuesbyusing
computertechnology.
8.Improvementsinhealthcareinformofmoreeffectiveequipmentanddrugs.
9.Increasedagriculturalactivitiesandenvironmentalmanagemente.g.theintroductionof
hybridvarieties.
Negativeimpactoftechnologicaldevelopment
1.Moraldecaylikeviolenceandprostitutionduetopeoplesexposureespeciallytheyouth
totelevisionandinternet.
2.Unemploymentduetonewtechnologyforexampletheuseofrobotsortrafficlights.
3.Deathofpeopleduetotheinventionofnuclearandchemicalweapons.
4.Pollutioncausedbyburntfossilfuels,smokefromcarexhaustsandothermaterials.
5.Companiesthatdonotuseinformationtechnologycannotcompetewiththosethatuse
informationtechnology.
6.Somenew technologicaldevelopmentsraiseethicalquestionssuchastheinnovations
(newideas)thatchangethenatureofplants.
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Developingnations
TheWorldBankclassifiesthecountriesoftheworldintothreemaingroupsbasedonGNPper
capitawhichisusuallystatedinUScurrency(USDollars).Thecountriesfallinthefollowing
groups:
1.Highincome,highdevelopmentcountries countriesofNorthAmericaandEurope,
Australia,Newzealand,Japan,theRepublicofKorea,SingaporeandKuwaitinAsia,
Barbados,TrinidadandBahamasintheCaribbean,UruguayandVenezuelainSouth
America.
2.Medium income,medium developmentcountries countriesintheCaribbean,South
America,thePacificregion,theMiddleEastandAsia,SouthAfricaandBotswana.
3.Low income,low developmentcountriesAsianandPacificnationsandanumberof
AfricancountriesincludingMalawi.
Itshouldbenotedthatthereisalwaysmovementonthisladderofdevelopmentwhichmeans
levelsofdevelopmentarealwayschanging.
Characteristicsofdevelopingnations
1.Lowlevelsofincomemanypeoplehaveinadequateincomefortheirsurvivalsothis
causeshighinfantmortalityrateandmaternalmortalityrate,illiteracyandmalnutrition
anddiseases.
2.Poorhealthsinceveryfewpeoplehasaccesstogoodhealthfacilities,sanitationandsafe
water.Thisisbecausethesesocialservicesarescarce.
3.Loweducationallevelsandstandardsbecauseoflackofteachingandlearningresources
like textbooks,qualified teachers and good quality classrooms.This causes high
percentageofschooldropoutsandmanyilliteratepeople.
4.Low levelsofproductivityduetolackofcapitalandadvancedtechnology,poorhealth
statusandnutritioninchildhoodwhichaffectmentalandphysicalgrowthonanindividual.
5.Highpopulationgrowthratesduetoculturalexpectationswhichencouragepeopleto
havemanychildren.Forexample,4.1childrenwhiledevelopedcountrieshaveanaverage
of1.9.Furthermore,highpopulationgrowthisduetolow mortalityratescausedby
improvedhealthstatus.
6.Highlevelsofunemploymentbecauseofhighbirthratesandhighpopulationgrowth
rateswhichmeansthatthesupplyoflabourexpandsmorerapidlythantherateofjob
opportunities.
7.Dependenceinagricultureandprimaryproductssincemanypeopleliveinruralareasand
hencetheyareengagedinagriculturalproduction.However,agriculturalproductionis
poorduetolandscarcityandlowleveloftechnology.Inaddition,dependenceonprimary
productsisbadbecausewhentheirpricesfall,peoplecannotgetenoughforeign
exchange.
8.Dependenceonforeignaidtohelpfundtheirdevelopmentprogrammes.Theaidisinform
ofgrantsandloans.
9.Highlevelsofdebtsincemanydevelopingcountriestookloansfromcommercialbanksin
theindustrializedworldin1970s1980swhichhadhighinterestrates.Thisledtoquick
accumulationofdebtsandcurrentlythedifferentcountriesarestillgettingloansfrom
otherorganizationsliketheWorldBank.
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10.Instabilityorlackofpeaceinform ofwar,ethnicrivalry,lackofgoodgovernanceand
violencecausedbycompetitionoverscarceresourcesandpower.
11.Weakeconomysincemanydevelopingnationsdependonagriculturalproductsthatare
affectedbyclimaticconditionsandworlddemandthatfluctuatealot.
DevelopmentchallengesfacingMalawi
1.Healthsector
a.Findingwaysofreducinginfantmortalityrate,maternalmortalityrateandtotal
fertilityrate.
b.Givingpeopleaccesstosafewaterandsanitation.
c.HIV/AIDS
d.Lackofenoughhealthpersonnelandfacilitiestosupporteveryoneinthecountry.
Thechallengesabovecanbesolvedthroughtheprovisionof:
a.Curativetreatmentwhichinvolvesnursesanddoctorsprovidinghealthservicesin
hospitals.
b.Preventivehealthworkwhichinvolveshealtheducationandprovisionofprimary
healthcareservicesclosetopeopleshomes.
2.Educationsector
a.Highadultilliteracyrate.
b.Highschooldropoutratesespeciallyatprimarylevel.
c.Lackofqualifiedteachers.
d.Lackofteachingfacilitiese.g.classroomsandtextbooks.
e.Migrationofqualifiedpeopletoothercountries.
3.Agriculturalsector
a.Shortageoflandsuitableforcultivation.
b.Findingwaysofincreasingproductivityinthesmallholdersector.
c.Foodinsecurity.
d.Pressureonlandresourceswhichleadtosoilerosionanddegradation.
4.Environmentalmanagement
a.Finding waysofenhancing the use ofmodern soiland waterconservation
technology.
b.Ensuringsustainableuseofforestryresources.
5.Tradeandcommerce
a.Findingwaysofpromotingmicro,smallandmedium scalebusinessesbyusing
SADCandCOMESA.
b.Highunemploymentlevels.
c.Findingwaysofincreasingexportofagriculturalcommoditiesandinvestinginthe
manufacturingsector.
DevelopmentachievementsinMalawi
1.100%enrolmentatprimaryschoollevelwhichincludeequalnumbersofboysandgirls.
2.Lowinfantmortalityrateandlowfertility.
3.Manywomenhaveaccesstomoderncontraceptives.
4.Widespreadknowledgeonimprovedagriculturaltechniques.
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Donors
Theseareinstitutionsthatgivefinancialandnon-financialaidinformofgrantsorloans.
Kindsofdonors
1.Countries givingbilateralaid-bilateralaidisatwosidedaidoraidfrom onecountryto
another.ExamplesincludeCanada,Denmark,theUnited StatesofAmerica,Britain,
Germany,Japan,Netherlands,Kuwait,SaudiArabia,LibyaandRepublicofChina.
2.Organizationsthatgivemultilateralaid thesegiveaiddirectlytoagovernmentor
supportspecific projects and getfunding from many countries e.g.World Health
Organization, Food and Agricultural Organization, United Nations Development
ProgrammeandUnitedNationsChildrenFund.
3.Non-governmentalorganizations–Thesearenotfundedbygovernmentswhichmaybe
localorforeign.Theygiveaiddirectlytogroupsorindividualsworkingonprojectsatthe
grassrootlevelinlocalcommunities.ExamplesincludeSavetheChildrenFund,World
VisionInternational,PlanInternationalandtheCanadianPhysiciansforAidandRelief.
Rolesofdonorsineconomicdevelopment
1.Positive
a.Provide funding fordevelopmentinitiatives such as supplementary national
budgetsandbalanceofpayments(differencebetweentheamountofmoneya
countrypaystoforeigncountriesandtheamountitreceivesfromthem).
b.Providetechnicalassistancetodevelopingnationsinform ofhighlevelmanpower
transferstomakesurethatfundsareusedefficiently.
c.Humanresourcedevelopmentthroughtheprovisionofscholarshipstohelppeople
fromdevelopingcountriestostudyindevelopedanddevelopingcountries.
d.Promotegoodgovernancebyputtingsomeconditionsforgettingdevelopmentaid
suchastransparencyandaccountability.
e.Provisionofsocialservicesinstitutionssuchasschools,hospitalsandboreholes.
2.Negative
a.Encouragesdependencysyndrome,thatispeoplewhoreceivedonationdonot
workhardsincetheyalwaysexpecttogethandouts.
b.Colonialism sincemostdonorsexpectthecountryreceivingaidtomeetcertain
conditionssuchasintroductionofmultipartysystem ofgovernmentorhow aid
shouldbedistributed.
c.Problemsofmanagementandcoordinationsincemanydonorsoverlapintheir
worksotheydonoteasilycollaborateorworktogetherwhenimplementingtheir
projects.
d.Donorsmaysometimesbring inappropriatedevelopmentordevelopmentnot
suitabletothelocalpeople.
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MajordonorstoMalawi
Denmark,Norway,theUnitedKingdom,Japan,Germany,theUnitedStatesofAmerica,Republic
ofChinaandCanada.
HeadquartersofsomeMalawiandonors
WorldBankWashington,USA;TheEuropeanUnion-Brussels,Belgium;InternationalMonetary
FundWashington,USA;AfricanDevelopmentBankAbidjan,IvoryCoast.
Sustainabledevelopment
Itreferstothedevelopmentthatmeetstheneedofthepresentwithoutcompromisingtheability
ofthefuturegenerationstomeettheirownneeds.
OR
Developmentthatinvolvesthecarefuluseofresourceswithoutdamagingtheenvironment.
Importanceofsustainabledevelopment
1.Improvesthequalityoflife.
2.Ensuresefficientuseofresources.
3.Reduceswastesandpollutionthroughrecycling.
4.Promotestourismsinceplacesarekeptnaturalandbeautiful.
5.Helpstopreventnaturaldisasterssincetheenvironmentisconserved.
6.Helpsinenergyconservation.
7.Helpsinculturalpreservation.
8.Leadstoeconomicgrowth.
Conditionsfavourabletosustainabledevelopment
1.Communityparticipationwherethecommunityinitiatestheprojectandbecomeactively
involvedsothatitbecomessuccessfulbecausetheybestknow howtheirlivescanbe
improved.
2.Genderequalitywherebothsexesmustbeactivelyinvolvedandnotonesexonly.
3.Policyandlegislativemeasuresinwhichcountriesshouldputinplacelawsthatpromote
sustainabledevelopmente.g.empoweringcommunitiesinpropermanagementofnatural
resources.
4.Education and awareness through environmentaleducation and telling people the
importanceofsustainabledevelopmentandproblemsofthemisuseofresources.In
addition,trainingpeoplehowtomaintainlocallyavailableprojectse.g.borehole.
5.Interdependenceormutualassistanceandcooperationatalllevelsbyacknowledgingour
commoninterestintheenvironment.
6.Responsibility and accountability by becoming responsible forthe environmental
managementandsayingtheiractionsopenly.
7.Availabilityoffinancialandnon-financialresourceswhichshouldbecheapandlocally
available.
8.Peaceandsecuritytopromotesustainabledevelopment.
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9.Appropriatetechnologywhichshoulduselocallyavailableresourcesandrenewable
energy.
10.Availabilityofmarketssothattheprojectsproductsaresoldeasily.Thepricesshouldnot
betooloworhigh.
Casestudiesonsustainabledevelopment
1.CommunityforestgroupsinMalawi
Thegovernmentinvolveslocalpeopleinthemanagementofforeststoencourageproper
useoftheforests.Theforestrydepartmentorganizestechnicaland administrative
supporttothecommunitywhilethecommunityforestgroupsprotectforestsfrom
encroachment,fire,grazingandtheft.
2.RainforestsofGuyana
ThisisIwokramaInternationalRainForestProgrammeformedbytheagreementofthe
CommonwealthandthegovernmentofGuyanawhereapartofitisusedasaSustainable
Utilization Area.Thereisa businessplan which findsoutthepotentialfortimber
production,tourismandmedicinalplants.
3.CampfireinZimbabweorCommunalAreasManagementProgrammeforIndigenous
Resources
Itwasinitiatedin1989toallowlocalcommunitiestohavecontrolovermanagementof
resources.Villagerscollectivelyuselocalwildlifeonasustainablebasis.Thisisdoneby
settinguppricesofhuntingpermitsperyearincommunity.Thesecommunitiessell
permitstosafarioperatorstodophotographicandhuntingexpeditionsoncommunity
lands.
Peopleandfinances
Financesmeanmoneyresources.
Or
Moneyusedtosupportanactivityoraproject.
Commonfinancialinstitutions
1.Banks abankisaninstitutionwhichcollectsfundsfrom thegeneralpublicand
organizationsandsafeguardsitaswellasprovidingmoneytothetrueownerswhen
required.
Banksaregroupedinto:
a.CentralBankorReserveBankItisnon-politicalandactsasafinancialwingof
thegovernment.Ithasthefollowingfunctions;
i.Lookingafterthegovernmentsmoneyby
Raisingmoneytolendtothegovernment
Looking aftermoney received from taxation,othersources and
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managesgovernmentpayments.
ii.Storesthenationsreservesofforeigncurrencyandgoldandestablishes
rulesaboutforeignexchange(forex)
iii.Supervisesthebankingsysteminthecountrytoensurefinancialstabilitye.g.
insistingthateachbankshouldholdacertainreservewhichcannotbelent
outtocustomers.
iv.Offersspecialistadvicetothegovernmentonmanagementoffinances.
v.Issuesbanknotesandcoins.
b.Commercialbanksthesearebusinessconcernsandruntomakeprofitse.g.
NationalBankandStandardBank.Theyhavethefollowingfunctions:
i.Foreignexchangereserves.
ii.Financialstabilitymakers.
iii.Custodiansofwillsandjewelry
iv.Arrangeforexforcustomersabouttotravelabroadaswellasimportersand
exporters.
v.Lendingoutmoney.
vi.Keepingsurplusmoneyforpeople.
vii.Helpinvestorstotransfertheirmoneyintoanotheraccount.
viii.Allowscustomerstousechequestopaybills.
2.TheStockExchange
Itisahighlyorganizedfinancialmarketwherebonds,stocksandsharescanbeboughtor
solde.g.TheMalawiStockExchange.Itsfunctionistoexchangeinvestmentsina
quickest,cheapestandfairestmanner.
3.Creditunions
Acreditunionisanon-profitcooperativeorassociationrunbyitsmemberse.g.Savings
andCreditCooperative(SACCO).Theyaremainlyaimedathelpingmemberstosave
moneyandaccessloans.
Somefundamentalprinciplesofcreditunionsinclude:
a.Non discriminatorywhich meanspeopleshould join regardlessofsex,race,
religionortribe.
b.Democraticbyallowingfreeparticipationofmembers.
c.Educatemembersinvariousskillslikebookkeeping,planningandbudgeting.
d.Encouragecooperationandsocialresponsibilityoftheirmembers.
4.Buildingsocieties
Organizationsthatlendmoneytopeoplewhowanttopurchaserealestateslikeproperty,
buildingsandland.Theseloansarecalledmortgageswhichareverylargeandmaybe
repaidafteralongperiodoftimee.g.over200r30years.
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5.Insurancecompanies
Theseprovidemoneytocompensateanydamageorlossbecauseofrunningariskthat
wasinsured againste.g.OldMutualand NationalInsuranceCompany.Peopleand
companiespaypremium (anamountpaidyearlyfortheinsurancepolicy)whichmakesa
pool(moneyreserve).Compensationisthereforepaidusingthepool.
6.Developmentbanks
Thesearesubsidiarycompanies(thoseownedbyotherlargecompanies)setupby
commercialbankstofocusondevelopmente.g.IndeFund.Theyhelpindustriesto
expandandmodernize.
Problemsfacedbypeoplewhendealingwithfinancialinstitutions
1.Fewfinancialinstitutionswhichmakesfewpeopletohaveaccesstofinancialservices
sincemostofthem arelocatedinurbanareassopeoplefrom ruralareashavetotravel
longdistancestoaccessthem.
2.Collateralorsecurityinform ofliquid(money)orfixed(machinery)isdifficultbecause
mostofthemneedfinancing.
3.Interestratesareveryhighespeciallyindevelopingcountrieswhichresultintofailureto
accessandserviceloans.
4.Fluctuationsinthesupplyofmoney.
ContributionsoffinancialinstitutionstoMalawisdevelopment
1.Provideloanstothegovernmentandparastatals.
2.Providenationalmarketswhichhelppeopletosaveandinvestthroughstockmarketor
exchange.
3.Highlevelofbusinessactivitysincepeoplewillalsorunriskybusinessduetothe
presenceofinsurancecompanies.
4.Provideemploymenttopeoplewhoarewellpaidsotheirlivingstandardsimprove.
5.Empowermentofpeople especially women through loans provided to startsmall
businesses.
6.Encourageselfrelianceandresponsibilitywiththegroupownedassociationslikecredit
unions.
Marketforcesandeconomies
Aneconomyisanyareainwhichpeoplemakeorproducegoodsandservicessuchasasmall
area(avillage),wholecountryorregionorthewholeworld(theglobaleconomy).
Ineacheconomypeopleareinvolvedinproductionandconsumption.
Productionisanyactivitywhichproducesgoodsandservices.Ithasthefollowingfactors:
o Thelandanditsproductsi.e.thelandiswhererawmaterialsoriginatefrom such
asagriculturalproductsandminerals.
o Labouri.e.workersorpeoplewhochangethesematerialsintogoods.
o Capitalreferstomoneyandmachineryortoolsusedtoproducegoods.
Consumptionreferstogoodsandservicesbeingused(goodsandservicesbeingbought
andconsumedorused).
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Typesofeconomies
1.Amarketwherebuyersandsellerscomeincontactphysicallywherestallholderssell
directlytoconsumersorindirectlythroughintermediariesasinastockexchange.
2.Afreemarketeconomyiswherepeoplechoosewhattobuyandthereislittlegovernment
interference.Companiesproducegoodsandservicesthatpeoplewantandthiseconomy
givesaconsumeravarietyofgoodsandservicestochoosefrome.g.inUSA.
3.Acentralgovernmenteconomyiscalledbythegovernmentsopeoplehavelittlechoiceof
whattogrowormanufacturee.g.thepreviousSovietUnionandEasternEuropedueto
communism.
4.Amixedeconomyispartlycontrolledbythegovernmentliketransportandpoweraswell
asbeinglefttofreeenterprisee.g.todayseconomies.
Demandandsupply
1.Demand
Itrefersquantityofgoodsandservicesbuyersorconsumersarewillingtobuyata
specificperiodatagivenprice.
Or
Itisthequantityofgoodsandservicesthatconsumersarewillingandabletobuyifthey
considerthepricetobereasonable.
Demandisaffectedbythefollowingfactors:
Levels ofincome i.e.households with very smallincome willafford basic
necessitiesonlyhencelowdemandforgoodswhilehouseholdswithhigherlevels
ofincomewillaffordavarietyofgoodshencegreatdemandforthosegoods.
Population changei.e.theincreasesand decreasesin population willaffect
demand.Forinstance,anincreasednumbersofpeoplewouldresultinahigher
demandforgoodsandservices.
Competitioni.e.ifthereisonlyonecompanywhichmakesaparticularproductand
hasareasonableprice,thentheconsumerhasnochoicewhichmeanshigh
demand.Furthermore,iftherearemanycompaniesmanufacturingaparticular
productandonecompanyhasareasonableprice,therewillbeagreaterdemandto
thecompanythatchargeslowerprices.
Changesinpricesofrelatedgoodsi.e.ifapersonwantstobuyaproduct,healso
relatesittothecostofmaintainingit.Thatisifthepriceofrelatedgoodstoa
productishigh,thedemandfortheproductwillbelow.
Advertisingi.e.cleverandinterestingadvertisementattractsconsumerswhich
resultintohighdemand.
2.Supply
Itreferstoquantityofgoodsandservicesproducersorsellersarewillingandabletosell
ataspecificperiodataspecificprice.
Or
Itreferstoquantityofgoodsandserviceswhichproducersarewillingtomakeorsellata
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reasonableprice.
ThepointatwhichthesupplycurvecrossesthedemandcurveiscalledanEquilibrium
point,thatissupplyisequaltodemand.
Supplyofmoney
Thisiscurrencyincirculationoutsidethebankingsystem anddepositsinbanksandbuilding
societies.Toomuchmoneyinsupplybutlessgoodstobepurchasedleadstohighlevelsof
inflation(generalriseinpricelevelofgoodsandservices).
Thereservebankcontrolsthesupplyofmoneyby:
1.Playingaroundwithdiscountratei.e.theinterestratechargedtocommercialbanksthat
borrow moneyfrom it.Loweringthediscountratewillleadtogreatdemandforloans
hencehighsupplyofmoneywhileraisingofdiscountratewillleadtolow demandfor
moneyhencereducingthesupplyofmoney.
2.Reserverequirementorreserveratiowhichistheminimum ratioofcashreservestothe
depositsthatthecentralbankrequirescommercialbanksorbuildingsocietiestohold.
Thelowerthereserverequirement,thehigherthesupplyofmoneyandthehigherthe
reserveratio,thelowerthesupplyofmoney.
3.Openmarketoperationsi.e.whenthecentralbankbuysorsellsfinancialsecuritiesinan
openmarket.Supplyofmoneycanbereducedwhenthecentralbanksellssecuritiesto
peoplesopeoplewillusetheirmoneytobuythem.Supplyofmoneycanbeincreasedby
buyingbacksomeofitssecurities.
Thedemandformoney
Thisisasituationinwhichpeoplewouldliketohavemoney.Moneyisneededbecauseofits
purchasingpowerovergoodsandservicessinceitisusedasamediumofexchange.
Demandformoneyisdeterminedby:
1.Interestratesi.e.thehighertheinterestrate,thelowerthedemandbecausethecostof
moneyishighwhilethelowertheinterestrate,thehigherthedemandsincethecostof
moneyislowsomanypeoplecanaffordit.
2.Averagepriceofgoodsandservicesi.e.iftheirpricesarehigh,moremoneywillbe
neededfortheirpurchasewhilewhenthepricesarelow,lessmoneywillbeneededfor
theirpurchase.
3.Realincomereferstotheamountofgoodsthatcouldbeboughtwiththemoneyreceived
duringaperiodoftime.Forexample,aK100notetodaydoesnothavethesamebuying
powerastheK100notein1985.Therefore,thehighertherealincome,thelessthe
demandformoneysincelowamountofmoneycanbuymoregoods.Thelowerthereal
income,thehigherthedemandsincepeoplewillneedmoremoneytobuythesame
quantityofgoods.
TOPIC2:CULTUREANDCHANGE
Culturereferstoanythingthatissociallylearnedoracquirede.g.beliefs,artandmorals.
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Culturalcharacteristicsofeasternculture
1.Familystructuresconsistofextendedfamiliesandjointfamilieswheremorethanone
marriedcouplelivetogetherinthesamehousehold.Familiesareheadedbymenwhile
womenplayaroleofraisingchildrenandtakingcareofthehouse.
2.Foodispreparedusingherbsandspices.
3.Hospitalityandgreetingsi.e.theystresstheimportanceofhonouringguestsbygiving
them largequantitiesoffoodandtreatingthem nicelysincetheyareseenasvisitorssent
byGod.Inaddition,ifyouareinvitedtodinner,thehostpaysforit.
4.Marriagesarearrangedandpublicdisplayofaffectionbetweenspousesisnotusual.
5.MajorcommonreligionsareIslam,Hinduism,Buddhismandtraditionalreligion.
6.Dressingstylesi.e.inpredominantlyMoslem societies,mostwomendressinclothesthat
covertheirhairandfaceswhichareusuallylong.Menwearlong-sleevedonepiececloth
thatcoversthewholebody.Thereareothersocietieswhichhavetheirowntraditional
dressing.
Culturalcharacteristicsofwesternculture
1.Familystructuresarenuclearwhichconsistofahusband,wifeandtheirunmarried
children.Singleparentfamiliesarealsocommon.
2.Commontypesoffoodincluderice,breadandpasta.Meatandvegetablesform partof
theirdiet.Theyalsoliketoeatoutinrestaurants.Recipebooksareusedforpreparing
food.
3.Hospitalityandgreetingsi.e.theyrespectprivacyandvisitsareuponinvitationwith
advancenotification.Ifyouareinvitedfordinnerorlunch,everyonepaysforthemselves.
Itisquitecommontobegreetedwithahandshakeorakiss.
4.Arrangedmarriagesareunacceptableandpeopledisplaytheiraffectioninpublic.
5.MajorcommonreligionsincludeChristianityandothersareatheists(peoplewhodonot
believeinGod).
6.Dressstylesi.e.menwearshirts,trousersorsuitswhilewomenweardresses,skirts,
blouses,suitsandsometimestrousers.
7.CommonlanguagesincludeEnglishwhichiswidelyspoken,French,GermanandDutch.
ImpactofwesternandeasternculturesonMalawiandAfrica
1.Changeinfamilystructuresi.e.mostAfricanspractiseextendedfamiliesinwhichpeople
liveatthesameplacecalledhomesteadorcompoundaswellassingleparentand
nuclearfamilies.
2.Comingofvariousformsofreligionwhichwerebroughtbywesternizationsuchas
ChristianityandeasternreligionssuchasIslamandHinduism.
3.DissolutionoftraditionalreligionsincemanyAfricansadoptedChristianityandIslam
whichledtoextinctionofAfricanTraditionalReligion.
4.Review ofcertainbeliefsandpracticesbecausemanyAfricansadoptedwesternand
easterncultures.Forexample,westernizationhasmadewomentohavethesamepowers
asmen.
5.CopyingmodernwaysoflivingsincemanyAfricansviewedwesternizationasahighly
developedlife.Forexample,womenplayaroleineconomicdevelopment,childrenmaking
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personalchoicesofcareersandmostpeopledependingoneducationandnotfarming.
6.Copyingofwesternmusicanddancesincetheybringdifferentemotionswhentheysing
anddancesuchasjoyandsorrow.Thereisalsoanintroductionofwesternmusical
instrumentssuchaspiano.
7.Copyingofwesternandeasternwaysofdressingsuchassuits,trousers,shirts,blouses
andskirtsfromwesternersandheadgearsaswellasrobesfromtheeast.
8.CopyingofwesternlanguagessuchasEnglishandFrenchwhichareusedinmost
Africancountries.
9.Copyingofwesternandeasternwaysofpreparingfoodbyusingherbsandspicesfrom
theeastaswellasthepresenceofrecipebooksfromthewest.
Culturalpreservation
Itmeansdeliberatestepstakentokeepaliveaspectsofpeoplesculturee.g.languageand
stories.
Or
Itisthepreservationofculturalheritage(aspectsofthepastthatpeoplepreserve,cultivate,
studyandpasstothenextgeneration)aswellasmaintenanceandsustenanceofnorms,beliefs
andcustomsinthesociety.Theseaspectsareintangible(whatisfelt,knownandexperienced)
e.g.traditions,habitsandcustomsaswellastangiblee.g.paintingsandbuildings.
Importanceofpreservingculture
1.Promotesidentityduetodifferentelementssuchasdressing,greetings,languageand
music.
2.Promotesunderstandingofotherpeoplebecauseofeconomicdevelopmentthatbrings
peopleofdifferentplacestogetherwhohavedifferentobjectsandcustoms.Whenthese
culturalgroupsaremixed,theyunderstandandrespecteachother.
3.Allowspassingonofculturetoothergenerationse.g.initiationceremonies,chainsof
commandwithinafamily,modeofdressing,culturalskillsandbasketweaving.
4.Promotemoreeffectiveuseofculturalassetsthroughincreasedaccessandbetterpublic
understandingoftheirvalue.
5.Promotesculturalsustenancebecausesignificantculturalresourcesarepreservedsuch
aspiecesofartandbuildings.
Strategiesusedtopreserveculture
1.Provisionofeducationalandawarenessprogrammesthatpromoteculturalpreservation.
2.Bookswhichdisseminateculturalheritagelessonsintheschoolscurriculum.
3.Artsandcraftsthatexpressculturalbeliefsandtraditions.
4.Folktales,proverbs,poemsandothernarrativeformsoforaltradition.
5.Museumsandculturalcentresinwhichobjectsandinformationaboutthepastarekept
andexhibited.
6.Policyandlegislativemeasureswhichcontroltheamountofimportedculturalproducts
e.g.copyrightlawsandlimitingthepercentageofdomesticallyproducedprogrammes.
7.Internationalculturalcooperation through signed agreements either bilateralor
multilateralbased on presentation ofAfrican artsand crafts ormusicto western
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audiencesandtransferofknowledgeonculturalinstitutionsandactivitiesfromthewest.
8.Traditionalchainsofcommandinwhichtraditionalleadersplayapartintraditional
festivalsandissuese.g.disseminatingtothepeopletheimportanceofpreservingculture
suchastraditionalmedicine.
9.Culturalorganizations,clubsandsocietieswhichdisseminatetheimportanceofcultural
preservation.
10.Musicanddance
Constraintsfacedinpreservingculture
1.Modernizationi.e.peopleswayoflifehaschangedduetotechnologicalimprovements
andwesternization.
2.Changesinideologiesi.e.presentideasandbeliefsheldbydifferentgroupsofpeople
maybeinconflictwithculturalvalueshenceleadingtotheresistanceoftraditional
religions.
3.Resistancebynew generationssincetheyouthmayresistsomeculturalpractices
becausetheylookatthemasoldfashionedandnotinlinewithmoderndemands.
4.The media such as radio,television and newspaperhas broughtculturallife and
technologicalstandardsthatareeasilyacceptedbyalargepopulation.
5.Needforchangesincesomeculturalpracticeshindersocio-culturaldevelopmentsothey
needtobeeradicated.
6.Lack offinancial,human and otherresources to achieve the process ofcultural
preservation.Forexample,financeisneededtofundtheactivitiestowardscultural
preservationandpeopleareneededtoworkintheseprogrammes.
7.Humanrightsi.e.someculturalpracticesareviolationsofhumanrightssothereisno
choicebuttochangethem.
Cultureanddevelopment
Someculturalvaluespromotedevelopmentthroughthefollowingways:
1.Unitywhichisbroughtbyunderstandingandrespectingofotherpeoplescultures.
2.Culturaltourismwhichmakesvisitorstostaylongerandspendmoremoneyinanareaso
thisgeneratesforeignexchange.
3.Theuseofvernacularlanguageonthemediamakespeopleunderstandsomeimportant
messagessopeoplefeelthattheyarepartofthesociety.
4.Incorporationofvaluableaspectsoftraditionalcultureintomodernsystemsofeducation
andhealthsuchaspartnershipbetweenwesternmedicineandtraditionalhealers.
5.Employmentopportunitiesintradeslikeartsandcraftsaswellasculturaltourismandthe
hotelindustry.
6.Traditionalchainsofcommandsinwhichleadersareusingtheirpowertopersuade
peoplesuchasfishermentoactresponsiblybynotfishingduringthebreedingseason.
Culturalpracticeswhichhinderdevelopment
1.InitiationceremoniespractisedbysometribessuchastheYaomakechildrentobe
withdrawnfrom schoolsothechildrenmightthinkthatschoolisnotimportantandget
marriedearly.
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2.Theritualoffisiinwhichamanhassexualintercoursewithanewlyinitiatedgirltobring
herintowomanhoodenticesthegirlintoearlymarriagesandhencedropoutofschool
andevencontractHIV/AIDS.
3.Thebeliefinwitchcraftpreventspeoplefrom succeedinginlifebecausethosethatfeel
thattheymightbebewitchedavoiddoingactionswhichassistindevelopment.
Multiculturalism
Itmeansrecognitionandappreciationofmanyculturalgroupswithinasocietyorhavingmany
cultures.
Itissometimesknownasculturalpluralismormulti-ethnicityormulti-racial.
Factorsthatenhancemulticulturalism
1.Modernizationi.e.industrialization,easymovementofgoodsaswellasthemediahave
led to changes in languages,aspirations(ambitions),patterns ofconsumption and
lifestyles.
2.Religioni.e.differentformsofreligionfollowed bydifferentreligiousgroupsaffect
culturalvalues.
3.Racewhichisgroupingofpeopleaccordingtotheirphysicalcharacteristics(e.g.colour
ofskinandhair,shapeofeyesandnose)resultsintomulticulturalism ifdifferentraces
mix.
4.Ethnicitybringsasocietywith amulticulturalsocietybecausedifferenttribesstay
together.
5.Migrationduetoconflicts,poorgovernance,socialandeconomicreasonsbringspeople
ofdifferentculturestogether.
6.Tradecausesmovementofpeoplefrom oneplacetoanothersodifferentracesorethnic
groupslivetogetherandsharedifferentcultures.
7.Intermarriagebringsculturalchangessincedifferenttribesmarry.
8. Citizenshipwhichiseitherthroughbirthorchoicemakespeoplefrom differentcountries
stayatoneplace.
Impactofmulticulturalismondevelopment
1.Positive
a.Unityandtoleranceduetopeoplesrespectforeachothersculturesandrights.
b.Improvedcountrysimagebecausemulticulturalism indicatesthatpeoplefrom
differentbackgroundsaretolerantofoneanother.
c.Exchangeofculturessincestayingtogethermakespeopletobefamiliarofothers
cultures.
d.Exchangeofideasbecausemulticulturalism helpsthecountrytobeupdatedwith
developmentaroundtheworld.
e.Exchangeofskillsbecauseacountrywithgoodmulticulturalism policiescanget
skilledemployeesfrom othercountrieswhendomesticlabourcannotmeetlocal
demandinthetimerequired.
f.Encourageglobalmarketsduetoaccesstoinfluentialnetworksinothercountries,
potentialforintroduction ofnew productsand testingofproductson global
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markets.
2.Negative
a.Ethnicorracialrivalrybecauseoneracialorethnicgroupwantstoexercise
supremacyorrefusescommonsetofrulesforpeacefulco-existence.
b.Dilutionofotherculturesbecausesomeculturalvalueinfluencesoneachother
resultingintodilutionofotherculturalvalues.
c.Economicexploitationsinceminoritygroupsorthelessinfluentialgroupsmaybe
deprivedfromopportunitiesbythemajority.Inaddition,theirqualificationsmaynot
beeasilyrecognized.
d.Expensive to promote because the recently migrated mightneed language
acquisition,medicalcareandaccommodation.
Discrimination
Thismeansunequaltreatmentofequals.
Or
Itmeansanyexclusion,restrictionorpreferencewhichhasthepurposeofimpairingthe
recognition,enjoymentorexerciseofhumanrightsorfundamentalfreedomsoflife.
Factorsthatcontributetodiscrimination
1.Racism whichinvolvestreatingonegroupofpeoplelessfavorablythantheotherdueto
physicalcharacteristics.Thisissincesomeracesbelievethattheyaresuperiortothe
other.
2.Ethnicityorethnocentrismisdonebecauseofethnicbackgroundasaresultofoneethnic
groupexercisingsuperiority.
3.Genderpreferenceswhichinvolvestreatingapersonlessfairlythantheotherduetotheir
sex,maritalstatusorbecausetheyarepregnant.
4.Religionorcastesystem whichinvolvesdiscriminationduetodifferencesinreligionor
socialranks.
5.Disabilitydiscriminationisdoneduetopeoplesphysicalandmentalhealth.Disabled
peoplefaceproblemsinaccessingeducationandemployment.
6.Illhealthdiscriminationbecauseofpoorhealthstatusespeciallychronicdiseasese.g.
HIV/AIDS.Peoplefacebarrierstoaccessgood qualityhealthtreatment,education,
trainingandpromotion.
7.Nationalism referstodiscriminationagainstforeignersbecausecitizensofaspecific
countryaretoopatriotictowardstheircountryandfeelforeignersonlycometoexploit
theirbestcountry.
8.Economicandsocialstatusdiscriminateagainstothersbecausepeoplefrom wealthy
familiesorthosewho havereceived good education ataprestigious(admired and
respected)schoolexercisesuperiority.
9.Politicaldiscriminationiscausedbyholdingdifferentpoliticalideologies.
Casestudiesofdiscrimination
1.ApartheidinSouthAfrica
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Thiswasduetoracialdiscriminationwhichresultedingreatinequalitiesinincome
betweentheblacksandthewhites.Italsoledtoinequalitiesintraining,promotionand
entrenchment.Therewasalsounequaldistributionofassetslikepreventingtheblack
Africansfromowningland.
2.CastesysteminIndia
Castereferstospecifyagroupofpeoplehavingaspecificsocialrank.Thissystem is
closelyconnectedwithHinduism inIndiaandclassifiestheHindusintofourgroupsin
hierarchicalorder.Themembersofeachgroupbelievetheyaredescendantsofone
ancestor.
Thefourbasicgroupsinclude:
Brahmanswhoarethepriestsandthelearnedclass.
Kshatriyaswhoarerulers,warriorsandpropertyowners.
Vaishyaswhoaretradersordealwithcommerciallivelihoods.
Shudraswhoarelabourers.
Thesystem hastheuntouchableswhodonotbelongtoanyofthecastegroupsandwere
historicallynotallowedintemplesandotherpublicplaces.Theirjobsincludetoilet
cleaningandgarbage(rubbish)removalhencetheuntouchable.
3.RacisminAmerica
TheKuKluxKlanisawhitemostinfluentialsupremacistorganizationintheUSAwhich
believesthatblacksareinferiortothewhitesandaimsatkeepingAmericawhite.They
alsobelievethatpeopleofdifferentracesshouldbeseparatedhencediscourageinter
racialmarriages.TheKuKluxKlanisinvolvedinracialcrimes.Forexample,inMarch,
1997,a13yearoldblackboywhorodehisbicycleinawhiteneighbourhoodwas
attackedandleftbraindamaged.Inaddition,in1981,ablackmanwaschainedand
draggedtohisdeathbyapick-uptruckinTexas.
4.Neo-NazisminGermany
TheNaziPartyruledGermanyundertheleadershipofAdolfHitlerfrom 1933to1945.
Underhisleadership,heendorsedracialviolenceandgenocidee.g.thenotableonein
whichmillionsofJewsweresystematicallykilled.TheNeo-Naziisagroupofrightwing
extremistswhobelievethatGermanyshouldbeforGermansthatisforthosewhohavea
German ancestry.The Neo-Naziare therefore involved in violence and hatred of
foreignerssuchthattheyengageinphysicalandverbalattacksonforeigners.
Effectsofdiscrimination
1.Socialinstability
2.Crime
3.Retardeddevelopmentduetowastageofresourcesduringconflicts.
4.Unfairdistributionofresources.
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5.Affectspeoplescareersandacademicperformance.
6.Highorganizationalcostsduetoabsenteeism.
7.Lowproductivityduetolowmoraleandabsenteeism.
8.Decreasedenergyandstressrelatedailments(diseases)
Effortstocurbdiscrimination
1.Theratification ofhuman rightsbynationswhich meanscountriesagreeto apply
principlescontainedintheCharteroftheUnitedNationswhichrecognizesthatallpeople
arebornfreeandequalindignityrightsandthateveryoneisentitledtoallhumanrights
andfreedomswithoutanydistinction.
2.EntrenchmentofBillofRightsintheconstitutionbydifferentcountriesshowsthatnolaw
canbevaried.Abillofrightsisalistofrightsofindividualsinacountry.TheConstitution
ofMalawihasentrenchedinitthebillofrights.
3.Establishmentofinstitutionsthatpromotehumanrightse.g.AmnestyInternationaland
MalawiCentreforHumanRights.
TOPIC3:GENDERANDDEVELOPMENT
Gendermeansthephysicalandsocialconditionofbeingmaleorfemale.Itlooksatapersons
selfperceptionofbeingmaleorfemaleinasocietyorcultureorexpectationsthatpeoplemay
haveinrelationtorolesandresponsibilitiesbecausetheyaremaleorfemale.
Genderrolesandresponsibilitiesaremadebythesocietyandlearned,therefore,theycanbe
changed.
Examplesofgenderrolesforwomeninclude:cryingatfuneral,takingcareofchildrenathome,
cookingforthefamilyandtakingcareofsickpeople.
Examplesofgenderrolesformenincludediggingatfuneral,abreadwinnerforthefamilyand
headingthehousehold.
Genderdevelopmentistheprocessofremovalofsocio-culturalproblemstomobility,accessto
resourcesandopportunitiesandemergenceofamorejustsociety.
Historyofgender
Itcanbetracedbacktoasearlyas1945whentheUnitedNationswasformed.
ThefollowingisabriefsummaryofUNapproachestogenderdevelopmentworldwide:
1.TheAntiPovertyApproach(1960-1970)
Itconcentratedonreducingpovertyofthepoorcountries.Itaimedatincomegenerating
activitiesthatwouldhelpincreatingincreasedcapitalaccumulationandincomeper
capita.
Itfailedtohelpreducepovertytothevulnerablegroupse.g.women,children,theelderly
andthedisabled.
2.TheWelfareApproach(1970-1980)
ItwasadoptedintheseconddevelopmentdecadeoftheUnitedNations.Itfocusedon
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redistributionofcontroloverresources.Specialwelfareprogrammesweredesignedfor
thevulnerablegroupsinthesocietyinordertoaddresstheinequalitiesthatexisted
betweenmenandwomen.
ThisledtothedevelopmentofWomeninDevelopmentApproach
3.WomeninDevelopmentApproach(1975-1985)
Itaimsatincreasingopportunitiesforwomentoparticipatein,contributetoandbenefit
fromthedevelopmentoftheirsocietiesandeconomies.
Itwascriticizedbecause:
Itfocusedonwomeninthedevelopmentprocess.
Itassumedthatwomenarepassiverecipientsofdevelopmentandnotactive
participantsinthedevelopmentprocesswhichisnottrue.
4.GenderandDevelopmentApproach(fromlate1985)
Itincludesbothmenandwomenasagentsofdevelopment.Itisbasedonthefactthatit
isonlyeffortsthatconsidermen and women aspartnersand notcompetitorsin
developmentthatcansuccessfullybringaboutwomensequalityandempowerment.
GenderissuesinAfrica
1.Gender,educationandtraining
Educationandtrainingofbothsexesareveryessentialfordevelopment.However,in
mostdevelopingcountries,especiallyinAfrica,educationforfemalesisaproblem.
Discriminationinagirlsaccesstoeducationisduetocustomsandtraditionsthatleadto
agirlsearlymarriageandpregnancy.Forinstance,agirlisgivenheavydomesticwork,
thereforeshecannotdowellinclassandalsomissesclasses.
2.Genderandhealth
Bothmenandwomenhavearighttoqualityhealthcarebutwomendonotenjoythisright
duetoinequality.Forexample,manywomenindevelopingcountrieshavelimitedpower
onissuesaffectingtheirreproductivehealthbecausemendecidewhenandhowoftento
reproduce.Inaddition,thewomenareexposedtoculturalpracticesthatnegatively
impactontheirhealthsuchaskusasafumbi.
3.Genderandviolence
Violenceagainstwomenreferstoanyactbymenthatresultsinorislikelytoresultin
physical,psychologicalorsexualharm orsufferinginwomen.Itoccursathome,inwork
places,schoolsandpublicplaces.
Violenceagainstwomenisdoneinthefollowingways:
Sexualabusewhichincluderape,unwelcomesexualcomments,requestforsexual
favoursbypeopleinauthorityinordertogetfavours,traditionalpracticesthat
promoteunwantedsexualpracticese.g.fisi.
Physicalabusewhichincludewifebattering(beating)
Psychologicaloremotionalabusereferstothecallingofwomenbadnames,
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makingthreatstohurtthem andisolatingthem bycontrollingwhotheyshouldsee
ortalkto.
Economicabusewhichincludeahusbandrefusinghiswifegettingorkeepinga
job,taking hermoneyawaywithoutherconsent,snatching awayproductive
propertyuponthedeathofherhusbandordenyingwomenaccesstocreditsince
theyarewomen.
4.Genderandenvironment
TheenvironmentisrapidlybeingdepletedinAfricaduetohighpopulationgrowthand
poorlandmanagementpractices.Womenarehardesthitbecauseoftheirgenderrolesof
fetching waterand firewood which arebecoming scarcebecauseofdeforestation.
Women also lackaccess and controlto productive resources e.g.land,improved
technologyandextensionservices.
5.Gender,poweranddecisionmaking
Womenareunderrepresentedinmostlevelsofpublicoffice.Forexample,inJuly,1999,
therewereonly17femaleMPsoutof193MPsand4out28cabinetministers.
6.Genderandreligion
Allreligionssupporttheideathatwomensmostimportantrolesareaswivesand
mothers.Forexample,MoslemsencouragewifelyobediencewhileHinduswanttheir
womentobefaithful,dutifulanddevoted.Christianssupportmaledominationaccording
tothelettersofStPaul.
7.Genderandrights
Theconstitutionsofmanycountriesgivemenandwomenequalrights.Forinstance,the
MalawianConstitutionstatesthatwomenhaverightstoregulatetheirfertilityandinherit
property.However,mostwomenarenotawareoftheirrights.Customarylaws,religion
andculturekeepwomeninaninferiorpositione.g.womendonotknowhowtobuyand
registerlandorclaimownershipofproperty.
8.Genderandculture
InsomesocietiesincludingMalawi,bothboysandgirlsundergoinitiationceremoniesso
thattheyaretaughttheircustomse.g.girlsaretaughthow tobewivesandmothers
whichmeanstheyaremeanttodohouseholdchoresonly.
Laws,rulesandregulationsthataregenderbiasedinMalawiandAfrica
1.TheWillsandInheritanceAct-Malawisconstitutiongiveswomentherighttoinherit
property.However,customarylawsaffectthewomensrightswhereamandieswithout
leavingawill.Theselawsdependwhetherthepeopleinvolvedliveinpatrilinealor
matrilinealsystem.Ifahusbanddiesinamatrilinealsystem,hiskine.g.maternaluncles,
brothersandsisters,nephewsandniecesinheritpropertywhileinpatrilinealsystem,his
brothersandfatherinheritpropertyleavingthewidowisolatedwithoutanyproperty.
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2.Maternityleave-Manywomenfaceproblemsingettingmaternityleaveespeciallyinthe
privatesectorbecausetheythinkthatifawomangetsmaternityleave,theirbusiness
maysuffer.Inaddition,manyemployersdonotemploywomentoavoidasituationwhen
awomanwillneedmaternityleave.
3.Citizenshiplaws-ThecitizenshipactofMalawiandmanyAfricancountriessaythatupon
marryingaforeigner,theMalawianwomanwilllosehercitizenshipunlesssherenounces
herforeigncitizenshiponher1
st
anniversaryofhermarriage.Inaddition,childrenborn
from aMalawianwomanbyaforeignercannotbeMalawianswhileaMalawianman
marriedtoaforeignerstillremainsaMalawian.
4.Suspensionofpregnantgirls-InmostAfricancountries,includingMalawi,pregnant
teenagegirlswereexpelledfromschool.
5.Religiouslaws-Manyreligionsdonotallowwomentotakeleadingrolese.g.priestsin
theRomanCatholicaremales.
6.Marriagelaws-InmanyAfricancountries,menbylawareallowedtohavemorethanone
womanwithouttheconsentofthefirstwife.However,awomancannothavetwo
husbands.
7.Travelregulations in someAfrican countries,awomansrightto acquiretravel
documentsarerestrictedbyhermarriage.Insuchcountries,ahusbandissupposedto
consentifthewifeissupposedtobegivenapassport.
8.Supportofchildrenbornoutofwedlock–inthelawsofmanyAfricancountries,mothers
whohavechildrenoutofwedlockshouldreceivefinancialsupportfrom theresponsible
fatherforthechildsupkeep.Theproblem istheamountofsupportrequiredisnot
regularlyupdatede.g.inMalawiitwassetatMK250permonthin1999whichis
inadequateforsupportingthechild.
Revisedrulesandregulations
1.WillsandinheritanceactThishelpsthewomentoacquirepropertyifthehusbandis
dead.Inapatrilinealsystem,thewidowisentitledtoallhouseholdbelongingsandtwo
fifthsoftherestofhisproperty.Thisisalsosharedwiththechildrenandotherdirect
dependants.Inmatrilinealsystem,thewidowisentitledtohalfthehouseholdbelongings.
Theotherhalfisdistributedamongthedeadhusbandsrelatives.
2.Dressactitmadeitpossibleforwomentowearclothingappropriatefortheirwork.
3.Equalityineducationhasbeenachievedbydoingthefollowing:
a.Studentswhoaresuspendedduetopregnancyreturntoschooloneyearafterbirth.
b.Schoolandteachertrainingcurriculahavebeenrevisedtomakethem gender
sensitive.
c.Therequirementtoworkschooluniformatprimaryschoolhasbeenabolished.
d.Schoolfeesforgirlsinsecondaryschoolswereabolishedfortwoyears.
e.Ascholarshipfundwasestablishedtohelpgirlsstayinsecondaryschools.
WaysofachievinggenderbalanceinAfrica
1.Provideeducationtobothboysandgirls.
2.Equalopportunitiestobothsexeswhenprovidingcredits,incomegeneratingactivities
andtraining.
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3.Encouragethemediatoincludepositivegendermessagesintoprogrammessuchassoap
operas.
4.Civiceducationprogrammestodisseminategirlsorwomenrights.
5.Establishmentoforganizationsthatshouldassistindealingwithcustomarylaw and
protectionofhumanrights.
Effectsofgenderbias
1.Retardsdevelopmentbecausewomenarenotallowedtomakeimportantdecisionsand
donothaveaccesstoeconomicopportunities.
2.Women haveunequalaccessto opportunitiessuch aseducation,employmentand
businesswhichwilllikelyresultinshortageofskilledhumanresources.
3.Highlevelsofunemploymentsincemanywomendonothaveaccesstoeconomic
opportunities.
4.Malnutrition and diseases since women who are involved in running farms and
householdslackaccesstoeconomicopportunities.
5.Earlymarriagesforgirlssinceasingleparentfamilywillwithdrawagirlfrom schoolas
onewayofendingpoverty.
Genderbalance
Itmeansprovisionofequalopportunitiesandequity(fairness)betweenmenandwomenin
humanrights,resourcesandstatusinthesociety.
Indicatorsofgenderbalance
1.Equalityandequityineducationwherethereishigheducationalenrolmentforbothsexes,
enrolmentofgirlsinnon-traditionalcoursese.g.engineeringandalsothecurriculum
shouldbegendersensitive.
2.Equalityandequityinhealthcarerelatedserviceswherebothsexeshaveaccessto
appropriatehealthcaresuchasinformationonsexualandreproductivehealthcare.
3.Equalityandequityinenvironmentalmanagementinwhichbothsexeshaveaccessto,
controland ownership ofproductiveresourcese.g.land,improved technologyand
extensionservices.
4.Equalityandequityinpoweranddecisionmakingatalllevelsbybothsexesaswellas
sharingpowerininfluentialpositionsinthecentralexecutivesofparties.
5. Equalityandequitybeforethelaw andhumanrightsbyrespectingforandadequate
promotionaswellasprotectionofhumanrightsofbothmenandwomen.Inaddition
peoplewillbeawareoftheirrightssothattheycanfullyenjoythem.
6.Equalityandequityineconomicopportunitiesbybothsexesinemployment,credit
facilitiesandagriculturalinputs.
Importanceofgenderbalance
1.Abundantskilledhumanresourcessincebothsexeswillhaveequalaccesstoeducation
andtraining.
2.Equalcontributionstodevelopmentbecausebothmenandwomenwillhaveequalaccess
topowerstructuresthatcontrolsocietyanddeterminedevelopmentissues.
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3.Morecommunitydevelopmentactivitiesduetoactiveparticipationbybothsexes.
4.Equalaccesstoeconomicresourceslikecreditthatwillmakemorewomenandmento
startsmallbusinessesasselfemployment.
5.Improvedhealthstatusandstandardsoflivingsincebothsexeshaveaccesstoquality
healthandeducation.
Genderplatformofaction
Thisisthepowerfulagendathatisaimedatempoweringwomenindifferentcountries.
Itmainlyaimsatthefollowing:
Acceleratingtheimplementationofmethodsthathelpwomentoadvanceordevelop.
Removingallobstacles(barriers)towomensactiveparticipationinallsectorsofpublic
andprivatelifebyhavingfullandequalshareineconomic,social,culturalandpolitical
decision-making.
Examplesofgenderplatformsofactioninclude:
TheBeijingPlatform forActionthatwasadoptedattheFourthWorldConferenceon
WomenheldinBeijing,ChinainSeptember,1995.
TheMalawiNationalPlatformforActiondevelopedin1997bytheMalawianGovernment.
TheMalawiNationalPlatformforAction
Itmakesacommitmenttoimprovethestatusofwomeninthe21
st
Centuryandidentifiesfour
priorityareasnamely:
1.Povertyalleviationandempowermentwomenshallbeempoweredin:
a.AgriculturebymakingpoliciesandprogrammesintheMinistryofAgriculture
gendersensitive,increasingwomensaccesstoagricultureandirrigationextension
servicesaswellascredits.
b.Employmentbyincreasingwomensaccessinformalemploymentandeliminating
sexualharassmentintheworkplace.
c.Womensreproductivehealthbyincreasingwomensaccesstoqualityhealthcare
andeliminatingattitudesandsocio-culturalexpectationsthatnegativelyimpacton
women.
d.Foodsecuritybyincreasingwomensaccesstobetternutritionandeliminating
householdfoodinsecurity.
e.Environmentalmanagementbyincreasingwomensparticipationinenvironmental
decisionmakingandcontributiontoenvironmentalfriendlytechnologies.
2.Thegirlchildwhoisusuallydiscriminatedagainstshallbeassistedusingthefollowing:
a.Eliminatingallsocio-culturalpracticesthatnegativelyimpactonthegirlchildby
provisionofqualityeducationandschoolenvironment,eliminatingdiscrimination
againstadisabledgirl,eliminatingprevalenceofstreetchildreninurbancentres
anddomesticpracticesthatharm thegirlshealthaswellasmakingtheschool
environmentfriendlytothegirlchild.
3.Violenceagainstwomensuchasrapeandwifebatteringshallbeaddressedbypreventing
andeliminatingviolenceagainstwomeninpublicplaces,institutionsandhomesaswell
asexaminingtheextentandnatureofviolenceagainstwomen.
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4.Peaceamongwomeninfamiliesshallbeaddressedbypromotingequalityandprotection
ofhumanrightsandwomen,makingthesocietyandwomenawareofhumanrightsas
providedintheconstitutionaswellasinternationallyacceptedstandardsofhumanrights
andtherightsofwomen.
OtherproposedobjectivesoftheMalawiNationalPlatformforAction
1.Toremovediscriminatorypracticesagainstwomen,childrenandthedisabledinhousing
loanschemestoenhancetheirproductivity.
2.Toimprovethepoors,womensanddisabledpeoplesaccesstolandandlandtenure.
3.Toprovideadequatesafeenvironmentalinfrastructureandservices.
4.Toincreasethenumberofwomenindecisionmakingpositionsinpoliticalsystemsatall
levels.
5.Tominimisetheeffectsofarmedconflictsonwomen.
6.Tomakethearmygendersensitiveanditscompositiongenderbalanced.
7.To enhance(accelerate)womens capacity to participate in decision-making and
leadershippositions.
Rolesofthegenderplatformofaction
1.Ithelpstoensurefullenjoymentbywomenandgirlsofallhumanrightsandfundamental
freedoms.
2.Itrecommendsmeasurestoeliminateallformsofdiscriminationagainstwomenandthe
girlchild.
3.Encouragesmentoparticipatefullyintheactionstowardsgenderequality.
4.Itpromoteswomenseconomicindependencebyensuringwomensaccesstoeconomic
resourceslikecredit,training,landandemployment.
5.Ithelpsinensuringequalaccesstoandequaltreatmentofwomenandmenineducation
andhealthcare.
6.Itlobbiesforthereviewandremovalofthelawsandculturalbeliefsandpracticesthat
promotegenderim-balance.
TOPIC4:CITIZENSHIP
Civilsociety
Itreferstoallnon-governmentalorstateorgansandinstitutionsthatparticipateinarelatively
organizedmannertowardstheexerciseofpowerbythestate.
Or
Itmeansdifferentorganizations,unionsandassociationswhichhavetherighttoworkinvarious
areasinacountrywithouttheinterferenceofthegovernmentaslongastheydonotcontravene
theconstitution.
Theirmainobjectiveistogettheparticipationofcommunityorgrass-rootlevelindecision-
makinginmattersoflocalinterest.
InstitutionsofcivilsocietyinMalawi
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1.Institutionsoragencies
Theseareintermediateagenciesthatoperatewithfull-timestaffandprovideavarietyof
servicestopeoplesorganizations.Theyareclassifiedintofournamely:
a.Development,justice and advocacy NGOs these are commonly called
developmentNGOsandworktoserviceautonomouspeoplesorganizationsby
doingexperimentstomaintainsocialorder,participationandsustainability.These
areautonomousandpoliticallyneutralintheiractivitiesthoughtheydependon
donorfunding.
b.TraditionalNGOs thesearecharitable,welfareandrelieforganizationsthat
provide services to the poor through orphanages,feeding programmes,
rehabilitation,homes forthe elderly,persecuted and others.They focus on
individualsandfamiliesthatareunabletocopewithpovertysituations.
c.Fundingagencies–thesearefoundationsandgrantgivingagencieswhichdonot
havedirectlinkwithgrassrootpeoplebutlargelyfunctiontosupportthroughloans
anddonations.
d.MutantNGOs–thesearespecialconsultancyorganizationswhichprovideadvice
anddirectionontheuseofdonorfunds.Theyaregovernmentinitiated,private
businesscorporationsandvariousshorttimeorganizationsthatusuallyexistfora
shorttimehencetheirmutant.
2.Membershipbasedorganizations
Theseoperateonvoluntarymembershipdealingwithnon-stock(non-profit)activities.
Theyaresub-dividedintotwomajorgroupsnamely:
a.Professionals,academicsandcivicorganizations
b.Peoplesorganizations(i.e.grassrootgroupsincommunities)whicharedivided
intosubgroups:
i.Governmentrunorganizationswhichareorganizeddirectlyorindirectlyby
thegovernmentorpoliticians.
ii.Autonomouspeoplesorganizationsthatmaybemarginalizedcommunities
andsectors.
3.Influentialnon-governmentalindividuals(e.g.academics,churchleaders,partyleaders
and professionals) whose statements or observations are regarded as being
representativeofthesocietye.g.NelsonMandela.
Rolesofinstitutionsofthecivilsociety
1.Provideeducationtopeopleinhealth,humanrights,environmentandothers.
2.Provideeconomicopportunitiestograssrootpeople.
3.Helpthegovernmenttoenforcesomeofitspoliciesandprogrammeslikeprotectionof
theenvironment.
4.Providereportsaimedatsensitizingthegeneralpubliconissuesinvolvedandassistin
theformulationormodificationofthegovernmentspolicies.
5.Sensitizepeopleontheirrightsandfreedomsinthedemocratizationprocess.
6.Provideexpertise,financialandtechnicalresourcestofacilitateaparticularaspectof
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development.
7.Actasarbitratorsbyhelpinginsolvingproblemsbetweentwoparties.
Importanceofcitizenparticipationincivilsociety
1.Peoplearemotivatedwhentheprojectisdoneintheircommunity.
2.Cooperationandunitysincepeopleareabletodiscusswaysofsolvingtheirproblems.
3.Developasenseofownershipandcaringofnewfacilitieswhentheyarecompleted.
4.Promotedevelopment
5.Strengthensthecivilsociety
Howcitizensparticipateininstitutionsofcivilsociety
1.Bybeingmembersofdifferentinstitutions.
2.Byattendingmeetingsoftheseinstitutions.
3.Bycontributingideas,financesandotherresources.
4.Byimplementingtheinformationprovidedbytheseinstitutions.
Unions,associationsandnationalservice
Unionsortradeunionsaremembershipbasedcivilsocietyorganizationsformedbya
groupofworkerstopromoteandprotecttheirrights.Theyaim atmobilizing,organizing
andeducatingemployeestochangetheindividualandsociety.
Theirmajorprinciplesincludeaction,participation,commitmentandactivity.
Theyhaveaconstitutionandarelegallyprotected.Theyalsoreflectcommonprofessional
characteristicsliketeachingandlaw e.g.theCivilServantsTradeUnionandTeachers
UnionofMalawi.
Anassociationisamembershipbasedcivilsocietyinstitutionthatismadeupofpeople
whobelongtothesameprofessionandareinvolvedinactivitiesthatreflectthesame
objectives.Theymobilize,organizeandeducatememberstotransformtheindividualand
society.Theyalsohaveaconstitutionandarelegallyprotected.ExamplesincludeTea
GrowersAssociation,NationalAssociationofSmallholderFarmers(NASFAM)and
TobaccoAssociationofMalawi(TAMA)
Rolesofunionsandassociations
1.Provideleadershipfortheirmembers.
2.Trainingmembersnegotiationanddecisionmakingskills.
3.Expressingunitedviewsoftheirmemberstotheauthority.
4.Promotingandprotectingrightsoftheirmembers.
5.Influencinggovernmentdecisionsandpoliciesinmattersaffectingmembers.
Unionsandassociationsusuallyusetheprincipleofnegotiationtoaddressthemembers
concerns.However,theymayresorttoanumberofindustrialactionsinordertosensitizethe
employerstoaddresstheirdemands.Theseinclude:
1.Go-slowemployeesmaydecidetoputpressureonanemployerbyreducingtheamount
oftheirdailyproductivityoutput.Thiswillusuallydevelopintoeitherasit-inorstay-away.
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2.Stay-away union members stay away from normalduty in orderto pressurize
employerstoagreetotheirdemands.
3.Sit-inemployeesreportfordutiesatworkplacebutcollectthemselvesatanopenplace
stayingawayfromwork-relatedactivitieswhiletheemployerlookson.
4.Procession–workersmobilizeandorganizeeachotherintoagroupandparadethrough
astreetdemonstrationusingplacardswhichbeartheirgrievancesorconcerns.
Unions/associationsbenefits
1.Provisionofcreditschemes.
2.Protectionagainstunfairdismissal
3.Ensuringpaymentofpensionschemes.
4.Legalassistancewhenaworkerisvictimized.
5.Improvedrelationshipbetweentheemployersandemployees(workers)
6.Betterworkingconditions
7.Educationfacilities
8.Freedomfromexploitation.
9.Sickleavebenefits
10.Socialwelfareactivities
11.Transport
12.Betteraccommodation
13.Maternityprotection
14.Betterwagesandsalaries
Nationalservice
Thisisanarrangementwheremembersofbothgovernmentandciviccommunitydotheir
voluntaryservicestoaspectsofdevelopmentfortheirownlives.
Casestudiesofnationalservice
1.MalawiSocialActionFund(MASAF)
ThisisafundwhichwassetupbytheMalawiangovernmentinpartnershipwiththe
WorldBankinordertostimulateandimplementvariousactivitiesatcommunitylevel.
MASAF activities are based on voluntarism and communalism since communities
organizethemselvestocontributetocertainaspectsoftheproject.Thecontributioncan
beeitherthroughthemouldingofbricksorprovisionofbuildingexpertisewhileMASAF
supportstheprojectthroughfinancialinput.
2.MalawiYoungPioneers
Thisdefunctmovementhadtrainingbasesthroughoutthecountry.Theaimsofthe
trainingbasesweretopromoteunity,selfrelianceandahardworkingspirit.
Candidatesweremainlyrecruitedfromruralareasandsecondaryschoolsduringthelong
schoolvacations.Thenon-studentcandidateswerebeingtrainedfortenmonthsand
couldeithergraduateorreturntotheirhomestopractisetheskillslearnt.Student
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candidateswouldserveintheMYPduringthethreemonthholidayandgohometodo
leadershiprolestodevelopthecountry.
ItwasdismantledbytheMalawiArmyinDecember,1993sinceitsactivitieswerein
conflictwiththedemocratizationprocess.
3.YouthWeek
Itwasestablishedin1971.Thisinvolvedaweeklongperiodbyboththeschoolsandlocal
communities dedicated to various developmentprojects.These activities included
buildingschool,constructionofroadsandbridges,assisting publicinstitutionslike
hospitals.
Importanceofthenationalservice
1.Eradicateilliteracy
2.Encouragecommunityhygiene
3.Protecttheenvironment
4.Enhancesnationaldevelopment
Internationalorganizations
TheseworkindifferentdevelopmentactivitiesinMalawiandexamplesincludeWorldVision
International,PlanInternationalandCARE.
Typesofdevelopmentactivities
1.Watersupplyandsanitation
2.Environmentalconservation
3.Infrastructuredevelopment
4.Genderpromotion
5.Humanrightsandgoodgovernance
6.Agriculturalactivities
7.Healthissues
Importanceofinternationalorganizations
1.Providetechnicalexpertiseinareasofeducation,politics,healthandmedia.
2.Provideeconomicopportunitiestolocalcommunitiesandindividualsbyfinancingsmall
enterpriseprojects.
3.Initiateandstrengthenbilateralrelationsduetoexchangeofexpertise,informationand
trade.
4.Bridgingthegapbetweentherichandthepoorbyprovisionofeconomicopportunitiesto
thepoor.
5.Promoteandprotecthumanrightsandgoodgovernance.
6.Globalization since every activity by the international organizations involves
communicationsoitmakestheworldasmallvillage.
TOPIC5:GOVERNMENT
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Governmentreferstothegroupofpeoplegoverningthestateaccordingtothegivenconstitution.
Statereferstothesystem whichmakesandenforcesdecisionsforthesociety.Itincludesthe
government,civilservice,thearmyandthejudicialsystem.
Aconstitutionisalegaldocumentthatdescribeshowthecountryshouldbegoverned.
Functionsanddutiesofthestate
1.Promotingwelfareanddevelopmentofallpeoplebyimplementingpoliciesandlawsthat
achieveanumberofgoals.
2.Toobtainequalityforwomenthroughfullparticipationofwomeninallmattersinthe
society.
3.Toachieveadequatenutritionforallinordertopromotegoodhealthandselfsufficiency.
4.Toprovideadequatehealthcaretosuitwithhealthneedsofallpeopleinthesocietyand
internationalstandardsofhealth.
5.Toensurethattheenvironmentismanagedproperly.
6.Toprovideadequateresourcestotheeducationsectorinordertoeliminateilliteracy.
7.Tomakeagreementsandtreatieswithothernation-statesonbehalfofitspeople.
8.Topromoteeconomicdevelopmentofitspeoplesothatthereisabalanceofthe
distributionofwealth.
9.Introducemeasureswhichwillguaranteeaccountability,transparency,personalhonesty
andfinancialprobity(totalhonesty)inordertopromotepublictrustandgoodgovernance.
Thepresident
Thisistheheadofstatenormallychosenbythepeopletoserveforaperiodoftime.However,
somenation-statesareheadedbyqueensorkingsliketheUnitedKingdomareheadedbyQueen
ElizabethandSwazilandisheadedbyKingNswati.
Theroleofthepresident
1.Headofstateandgovernmentwhichmeansheprovidesexecutiveleadershiptothe
country.
2.Commander-in-chiefofthearmedforceslikeinMalawithearmedforcesincludethe
MalawiArmy,theMalawiPoliceServiceandtheMalawiPrison.
3.Representative ofpeople because when heads ofotherstates and otherforeign
dignitariesvisitthecountry,theycallonhim.Inaddition,herepresentsthecountrywhen
hevisitsothercountriesandatimportantmeetings.
4.Powertopardonthosewhohavebeenconvictedbythecourts.Hecanordertheir
immediatereleaseortheirsentencesshouldbereduced.
5.Honoursbraveandhardworkingpeoplee.g.inMalawi,peoplereceivetheDistinguished
ServiceMedalbecausetheyofferedadistinguishedservicetothecountry.
6.Tosignbillsintolaw.
7.Togiveanopeningandclosingspeechofeachsessionofthenationalassembly.
8.Toappointcabinetministers
9.To appointambassadors to othercountries and receive ambassadors from other
countries.
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Thedefenceforces
Theyincludethearmyandotherinstitutionslikethenavyandthepolice.Thedefenceforcesof
MalawiconsistoftheMalawiArmy.
Rolesofthedefenceforces
1.Toupholdthesovereigntyandterritorialintegrityofitscountry.
2.Toguardagainstthreatstothesafetyofitscitizensbyforceofarms.
3.Toprovidetechnicalexpertiseandresourcesinthemaintenanceofimportantservicesin
timesofemergencylikenaturaldisasters.
4.Tosearchandrescueairoperations.
5.Toprovideexecutiveairtransportservice.
6.Toprovideairambulanceservice.
Systemsofgovernment
1.Theunitarysystem
Thisiswhenthecentralgovernmentisgivensuperiorpoweroverregionalorlocal
governments.Thecentralgovernmentcan delegatesomeauthorityto theregional
government.ExamplesofthisgovernmentarefoundinMalawi,SouthAfricaandKenya.
2.Thefederalsystem
Thisiswhenboththecentralandregionalgovernmentsaresupremeregardingsome
powers.
Mostfederalgovernmentsarecomposedofdifferentstateswhichmakeuponenation
andeachstate(region)holdssomeregionalpowers.Forinstance,aregioncanbegiven
thepowertomakepoliciesregardingtaxes,schools,hospitalservicesandotherlocal
servicesinitsarea.AnexampleofafederalsystemisfoundinIndia.
3.Aconfederation
Thisisasystem ofgovernmentwherebyseparateindependentnation-statesarelinked
togethertocooperateincertainwaysliketheEuropeanUnion.
4.Arepublic
Thisisasystem ofgovernmentinwhichthereisanelectedpresidentbutnokingor
queenlikeMalawi,KenyaandUSA.
5.Monarchy
Thisisasystem ofgovernmentthathasasupremerulersuchasakingorqueene.g.
Swaziland.
Election
Itisaprocessforchoosingofficers.
Itsfunctionistodecidethecontestwheretwoormorecandidatescompeteanditisaformal
procedureoffillingpublicoffices.
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Typesofelections
1.Generalelectionselectionsheldthroughoutthecountrytomakeafinalchoiceforall
publicofficestobefilledatthattime.InMalawi,theyareheldeveryfiveyearstochoosea
presidentandmembersofparliament.
2.Primaryelections–amethodbywhichapoliticalpartychoosesitsnomineesforpublic
office.Theseareheldbeforegeneralelectionssothatvotersareinvolvedintheselection
ofpartycandidates.InMalawi,mostpoliticalpartieslimitprimaryelectionsto the
registeredpartymembers.
3.Run-offelections itisheldwherenocandidatewinsaclearmajorityinageneral
election.Thesearenormallybetweentwocandidateswhohadmostvotes.
4.By-electionstheseareheldwhereapublicofficeisvacatedthroughdeath,retirement,
resignationorwhentheholderofthepublicofficehasjoinedanotherpoliticalparty.
5.Localelectionstheseareconductedwhenpeoplewanttofilllocallevelofficeslikelocal
governmentoffices(choosingofcouncillors).Localgovernmentelectionsareconducted
everyfiveyearsinMalawi.
6.Areferendum anelectioninwhichanissueissubmitteddirectlytoapopularvotee.g.
inMalawiitwasheldin1993todecidewhetherthecountryshouldhaveamulti-party
systemofgovernmentorcontinuewiththeonepartysystem.
7.Directelections–eachmemberoftheelectoratevotesdirectlyforthecandidateofhisor
herchoicee.g.generalandlocalelectionsinMalawi.
8.Indirectelection–thesearedecidedbyvoteofaspecialelectoralbodywhosemembers
aredirectlyelected.Thisisdonetolimitapopularrule.Forexample,inUSA,theyusean
indirectelectiontochoosethepresident.Theyuseaspecialelectoralcollege(acollective
nameforagroupofelectorsnominatedbypoliticalpartieswithinthestates)whomeetto
voteforpresidentandvicepresident.
Othertermsassociatedwithelections
1.Aballotpaperisthepieceofpaperofusedbythevoterinchoosinghisorherpreferred
candidate.
2.AnelectionofficeristhepersonwhoworksfortheElectoralCommissionandinclude
registrationofficersandpollingstationofficers.
3.Acandidateisapersonwhowishestorepresenttheconstituencyorward.
4.Aballotboxistheboxintowhichballotpapersareput.
5.Anindependentcandidateistheonewhoisnotsponsoredbyapoliticalparty.
6.Apollingstationistheplacewherepeoplegotocasttheirvotes.
7.Registrationreferstoaprocessbywhichapersonsnameisaddedtothevotersregister.
8.A constituencyisageographicalareawhichhasbeendeterminedbytheElectoral
CommissionandwhichwillberepresentedintheNationalAssemblybyoneMemberof
Parliament.
Theelectoralprocess
Theelectoralsystemhasdifferentcomponentsnamely:
1.Districting aprocessbywhichexactgeographicalboundariesofconstituenciesor
wardsareestablished.Thisprocessdependsonthepopulationdensityofanarea,the
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geographicalpositionofanarea,easycommunicationandthewishesofpeople.In
Malawi,wardboundariesdonotcrosslocalauthorityboundaries.
2.Registration–identificationofaneligiblevoter.Apersonisonlyallowedtoregisteronce
intheareahe/sheresidesorwasbornorisemployedorcarriesonhisbusiness.During
the registration,a person is issued a voters registration certificate.A period of
registrationofvotersisdeterminedbytheelectoralcommissionandinMalawi,theperiod
isbetween1421daysandthoseallowedtoregistershouldbe18yearsandabove.The
personshouldattaintheageof18yearsonorbeforethepollingday.
3.Qualifying foroffice and nomination ofcandidates these are requirements for
candidatesandincludeage,residence,citizenshipandtermlimits.
InMalawi,apersonqualifiesasacandidateforthepositionofcouncillor,Memberof
Parliamentandpresidentif:
a.HeisaresidentofMalawianddoesnothaveaforeignorigin.
b.Hehasreachedtheageof21years.
c.HeisabletospeakandreadEnglishandisaregisteredvoter.
d.Hehasneverbeenconvictedbyacompetentcourtwithinthelastsevenyears.
e.HedoesnotbelongtotheDefenceForcesofMalawi,theMalawiPoliceServiceor
intheMalawiPrisonService.
Candidatesarenominatedatpartyconventions,individualconstituenciesorbynational
partyleadersorcanstandasindependentcandidates.
In Malawi,theelectoralcommission appoints a returning officerwho receivesthe
nominationsofcandidates.NominationsinMalawiarerequiredtobemadebyatleastten
registeredvotersintheconstituencyorwardinwhichapersonwouldliketobea
candidateandeachvotershouldsignonthenominationpaper.
4.Campaigningitisdonetopublicizetheelectioninordertohaveaheavyturnout.Itis
alsodonetoappealtotheelectoratetovoteforacandidate.Campaignsaredoneusing
ralliesorsocialgatherings,themediaanddoortodoorcampaigns.Othersuseopinion
polls(privatepollstoknowhowpopulartheyare).Campaignisprohibitedatmilitaryunits,
policestations,publicinstitutionsandeducationalinstitutionsduringnormalworking
hours.
5.Settingupofpollingstationsestablishingpollingstationsthroughouttheareawhere
theelectionsaretobeheld.Votingbooths(aplaceformakingthechoiceforacandidate
byavoter)areestablishedateverypollingstation.Politicalpartiesareallowedtomonitor
thevotingprocessandaresupposedtoinspecttheballotboxesandpollingstations
beforethebeginningofthecastingofvotes.
6.Thevoteandvotingprocessvotersuseballotpaperstovoteandtheyexercisetheright
tovoteatapollingstationlocatedattheregistrationcentrewheretheyregistered.Ifthis
isnotpossible,alternativearrangementshavetobemade.Pollingdaybeginsat6Oclock
inthemorningandclosesat6OclockintheeveninginMalawi.
7.Tabulating,reportingandcertifyingresultsinmanycountries,votesarecountedby
electionofficialsatvariouspollingstationsofteninthepresenceofauthorizedparty
workers.Electionresultsandwinnersareoftencertifiedbypublicofficials.Wherethereis
nomajoritywinner,anotherelectionmustbeheldwithinaspecifiedperiod.TheElectoral
CommissionofMalawiisthebodythatcertifiesresults.
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8.Internationalobservations–verificationofvariousstagesbyinternationalorganizations,
foreigngovernmentsandpeopleandhelpto:
a.Verifyandmonitorregistrationofvoters.
b.Observethecampaigningprocess.
c.Verifyandmonitorthevotingprocess
d.Verifyandmonitorresultsoftheelection
e.Observeaccessanduseofthemedia.
9.Complaintsandappealsanycomplaintsubmittedinwritingshallbeexaminedand
decidedonbythecommissionandifitisconfirmed,thecommissionshalltakeany
necessaryaction.An appealshalllie to thehigh courtagainsta decision ofthe
commission.Thiscourtmakesadecisiontoconfirmorrejecttheirregularity.
TheElectoralCommissionofMalawi
Thefirstcommissionwasestablishedin1993tolookaftertheelectionissuesinMalawiwhich
wasdissolvedin1998.Asecondonewasappointedin1998.Membersofthecommissionare
calledcommissionersandareappointedbythepresidentafterconsultingpoliticalparties
representedinthenationalassembly.IthasachairpersonwhoisnominatedbytheJudicial
ServiceCommissionandothercommissionerswhoarenotlessthansix.
Functionsanddutiesofthecommission
1.Demarcating constituencies and wards in which itsupervises the demarcation of
boundaries.
2.Registrationofvotersbydevisingandestablishingvoterregistersaswellaslookingat
theeligibilityofthevotersintermsofageandcitizenship.
3.Receivingnominationofcandidateswhowishtocontestinanelection.Thenominations
arereceivedbythereturning officerwhoadvisesthenominatedcandidateofany
problemsinthenominationpaper.
4.Monitoring campaign news and broadcasts to ensure equalnews coverage of
campaigningbyallcandidates.
5.Establishingandoperatingpollingstationsaswellasappointingpollingstationofficers
tosuperviseproceedingsatthepollingstation.
6.Print,distributeandtakechargeofballotpapersandtoapproveaswellasbuyballot
boxes.
7.Determiningresultsbydeclaringthewinneroftheelection.
8.Establishingsecurityconditionsnecessaryfortheconductofeveryelection.
9.Promotepublicawarenessofelectoralmattersthroughthemediaandothermeans.
Roleofvoters
1.Togiveaccurateinformationduringregistration.
2.Toregisterinoneareaonly.
3.Theyshouldnotinciteviolenceduringanelection.
TheCentralGovernment
Itiscomposedofthreebranchesnamely:
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1.TheLegislativeBodyortheLegislatureitconsistsofthepresidentandmembersof
parliament.
Ithasthefollowingfunction:
a.Makeslawsofthecountry
b.Approvesannualgovernmentexpenditurebeforeitisimplemented.
c.Debatesmattersofnationalimportancee.g.povertyalleviationandaccountability
ofgovernment.
d.Examinesgovernmentactionsonbehalfofcitizens.
2.TheExecutiveitiscomposedofthepresidentastheheadandcabinetministers.
Ithasthefollowingfunctions:
a.Initiationofpolicies(governmentplans)andimplementationofalllawsofthe
country.
b.MakestreatiesonbehalfofMalawians.
c.Providesvariousservicese.g.securitythroughtheministryofdefence,education
throughtheministryofeducationandhealththroughtheministryofhealth.
3.TheJudiciaryitiscomposedoflaw courts,thechiefjustice,judgesofthesupreme
courtofappeal,highcourtjudges,theregistrarofthehighcourtandmagistrates.
Itinterpretsandapplieslawsofthenationandmakessurethatlawsareobeyed.
Typesofcourtsinclude:
a.TheSupremeCourt–thisisthehighestinthecountryandinMalawiitiscalledthe
SupremeCourtofAppeal.Itiscomposedofthreehighcourtjudgesnoneofwhom
tookpartinthecaseappealedagainst.
b.TheHighCourt–secondhighestcourtandinMalawiitiscalledtheHighCourtof
Malawi.ItconsistsoftheChiefJusticeandotherjusticesnotlessthantwo.It
decidesoncasesbroughttoitandalsohearsappealsfrom lowercourtscalled
magistrates.
c.ThesubordinatecourtsthesearebelowtheHighCourtandincludemagistrate
courtsandindustrialrelationscourts(dealswithlabourdisputesandissuesrelated
toemployment).
Sourcesofrevenueforcentralgovernment
1.Incometaxfromindividualsandcompaniese.g.PayAsYouEarn(PAYE).
2.Customsandexcisedutywhichismoneypaidforimportedgoods.
3.Licencesanddutieswhicharemoneypaidwhenapersonwantstoobtainadriving
licenceaswellasdeathduties(paidonpropertyleftbyadeceasedperson).
4.Rentspaidbycivilservantswhooccupygovernmenthouses.
5.Miscellaneousdepartmentalreceiptswhichincludesherifffees,paymentofappealed
casesandothers.
6.Loansfrombanksandotherlendinginstitutionsfromhomeorabroad.
7.Donoraidfromothercountriesandinternationalorganizations.
8.Commercialactivitiesthroughowningcompanies,privatizationorsharesindifferent
countries.
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Localgovernment
Itiswhenpower,authorityandresponsibilitiesofthecentralgovernmentaretransferredtolower
andmorelocallevelsfordecisionmaking.Thistransferofpowerfromthecentralgovernmentto
localgovernmentiscalleddecentralisation.
Localgovernmentinstitutions
1.Districtassembliese.g.Ntchisi,ChitipaandNsanje.
2.Townassembliese.g.Karonga,LiwondeandDedza.
3.Municipalassembliese.g.Kasungu.
4.Cityassembliese.g.Blantyre,LilongweandMzuzu.
Somedistrictshavebothadistrictandacityassemblywhileothershavebothdistrictand
municipalassembliesbuteachassemblyisindependent.
Compositionofanassembly
1.Councillorswhoareelectedinwardsandarevotingmembersonlocalgovernmentissues.
2.TraditionalAuthoritiesandSubTraditionalAuthoritieswhoarenon-votingmembers.
3.Membersofparliamentthatfallwithinthelocalgovernmentareaasnon-votingmembers.
4.Fivepeopleasnon-votingmemberstolookintotheinterestsofsomegroupse.g.women,
theyouthandthephysicallychallenged.
5.TheChiefExecutivewhoisanon-votingmember.
Assemblymembersappointthechairpersonandthevicechairpersonontheirfirstmeetingwho
serveforfiveyears.Thechairpersonandthevicechairpersonofthecityandmunicipal
assembliesarecalledthemayoranddeputymayorrespectively.Theassemblyhasseveral
committeessuchasfinance,development,education,healthandsanitation,appointmentsand
disciplinary.
Functionsoflocalassemblies
1.Promoting publichealth through theprovision ofclean and health environmentby
inspectingfood,drinks,refuse,pestsandstreets.
2.Providingclinicalhealthservicesbymanagingclinics,healthcentresanddispensariesas
wellasprovidinghealtheducationservices.
3.Environmentalmanagementbylookingafterforestryreserves,treenurseries,landscapes,
zoosanddams.
4.Promoting economic developmentthrough town planning,business licensing and
managingmarketsandmarketbuildings.
5.Educationthroughprovisionofpublicschools,schoolbursariesandlibraries.
6.Providingforroadsandstreetsbyconstructingandmaintainingthem.
7.Emergencyservicesbymaintainingandmanagingambulanceandfireservices.
8.Providingpublicamenitieswhichincludeparks,recreationalgrounds,botanicalgardens,
museums,historical,culturalandscientificplaces.
Sourcesofrevenueoflocalauthorities(governments)
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1.Governmentgrantsfromthecentralgovernment.
2.Producecess(taxpaidbythosewhoselltheirproduceatlocalassemblymarkets)
3.Licencesfromthosewhooperatebusinessese.g.bottlestores.
4.Occupationlicencesandrentsthroughownershipofbuildings,shopsandland.
5.Ratespaidbyownersofbuildings,plotsinmunicipalitiesandtowns.
6.Feescollectedfrompeoplewhousemuseumsandcarparkingareas.
7.Servicechargesforemptyingseptictanks,fireandambulanceservices.
8.Profitandinterestfrombusinessessuchasrestaurantsandresthouses.
9.Loansfromthebanksandcentralgovernment.
Statutorycorporations
Thesearestateenterprisesorparastatalsbyanactofparliamente.g.AgriculturalDevelopment
andMarketingCorporation(ADMARC),BlantyreWaterBoard,MalawiInstituteofEducationand
MalawiDevelopmentCorporation.
Functionsofsomestatutorycorporations
1.ElectricitySupplyCommissionofMalawi
a.Buildingandmaintainingpowerplants.
b.Distributingandsupplyingelectricity.
c.Investigatingneworadditionalfacilitiesforsupplyingelectricity.
2.MalawiDevelopmentCorporation
a.Todevelopagricultural,commercial,industrialandmineralresources.
b.To formulate projects forthe promotion orexpansion ofnew orexisting
enterprises.
c.TotraincitizensofMalawihowtomanageandexpandaproject.
d.Toprovideloans.
e.Toinvestmoneyinvariousenterprises.
3.ExportPromotionCouncil
a.Topromotetheexportofagriculturalproducts.
b.Tomakeavailableexportersinformationandstatisticsontheexportersmarket.
c.Organizeandoperatetradefairsorganizedabroad.
d.Arrangeforrepresentationbyexhibitorsattradefairsorganizedabroad.
4.SmallHolderSugarAuthority,SmallHolderCoffeeAuthorityandSmallHolderTea
Authority
a.Promotesugar,coffeeandteaschemes.
b.Tocontrolandsupervisethegrowingoftea,coffeeandsugar.
c.Toprovidetrainingforthegrowers.
d.Toorganizetransportforcollectionofcropsformarketing.
e.Togivecreditandrecovermoneybydeductingfromgoodssales.
5.MalawiNationalLibraryService
a.Topromote,establish,equip,manageandmaintainlibrariesinMalawi
Sourcesofrevenueforstatutorycorporations
1.LoansfrominstitutionsandorganizationswithinandoutsideMalawi.
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2.Billsandsubscriptionspaidbycustomersandclients.
3.Governmentgrantsanddonationsfrominternationalinstitutions
4.Rentsandroyaltiesfromthesaleoftheirproperties.
5.Interestsfrombankaccounts
Goodgovernance
Thisistheexerciseofpolitical,economicandadministrativeauthorityeffectively,efficientlyand
fairly.
Principlesofgoodgovernance
1.Accountability– itmeansthatpoliticiansshouldbeabletoexplainandjustifytheir
actionsanddecisionstothecitizensoftheircountry.Thisisimportantwhenitcomesto
financialdealingssincepeoplehaveeveryrighttoknowhowmoneyisspent.
2.Transparencythismeansthatgovernmentbusinessshouldbeconductedopenly.The
governmentshould open governmentrecords forinspections and also explain its
decisionsinmattersofnationalimportance.
3.Participation–thismeanspublicparticipationindecisionmakingdirectlyorindirectly
throughmembersofparliament.
4.Ruleoflawthismeansthatnobodyisabovethelawsoeveryonemustbegivenequal
punishmentforequaloffencesregardlessoftheirstatus.
5.Separationofpowers–itmeansthatthethreebranchesofgovernmentshouldhave
separatefunctions.
Institutionsthatpromotegoodgovernance
1.TheLegislatureitpromotestheruleoflawbyensuringthatlawsarefair.
2.The Judiciary itinterprets,protectsand enforcesalllawsofthe countryin an
independentandimpartialmanner.
3.TheElectoralCommission–ensuresindependentandtransparentelectionsofpeopleto
publicoffices.
4.Auditoffices presentfinancialstatementsofdifferentdepartmentsandcompanies
independentlytothemanagementorboardofdirectors.
5.Humanrightsorganizationsmakesurethatnationallawsandinternationallyrecognized
conventionsareupheld.
6.Theofficeoftheombudsman–helpstopromotetheruleoflawbyinvestigatingcasesof
injustice.
7.TheAnti-CorruptionBureau–helpstopromotetheruleoflawbyinvestigatingcorruption
casesandalsopromotesaccountability.
8.Civilsocietyorganizationsprovidechecksandbalancesongovernmentpowerandalso
monitorsocialabuses.
9.Themediapromotestransparencyandaccountabilitybyinformingthepublicgovernment
actionsanddecisions.
TOPIC6:HUMANRIGHTS
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Specialgroups
Thesearepeoplewhosharecertaincharacteristicswhicharebiological,socialandothers.
Theseareconsideredasspecialgroupsbecausethenatureoftheircharacteristicsrequires
specialconsiderationwhichtheywouldbedeniediftheyweretreatedalongwithothergroupsof
people.
Peoplecanbeidentifiedasbelongingtoaspecialgroupbylookingatthefollowing:
Biologicalmake-up
Legalstatusascitizense.g.prisoners
Socialstatussuchasthedisabled
Geographicallocationsuchasrefugees
Culturesuchaspeoplewhobelongtoaparticularethnicorracialgroup
Professionalsuchasmigrantworker
Typesofspecialgroups
1.Womenandgirlstheyareconsideredasaspecialgroupbecauseofdifferentbiases
thatarebasedonsocialexpectationsoftheirroles,statusandtheirexistence.Theyface
thefollowingabuses:
a.Domesticviolencewhichcanbephysicallyorsexuallye.g.beatingsandrape.
b.Forcedearlymarriagesespeciallygirlsthatliveinruralareasduetopovertyand
traditions.
c.Inabilitytoacquireorretainpropertybecauseoftraditions.However,Malawians
arenotfacingalotofproblemsduetotheWillsandInheritanceAct.
d.Sexualharassmentintheworkplaceandschoolinform ofjokes,teasing,rapeon
thewaytoandfromschoolandothers.
e.Inequalityineconomicopportunitiesbecausethesocietyviewsmalesascapable.
f.Inadequateeducationbecausesomesocietiesdonotconsiderthegirlchildora
womanassomeonewhoneedsthesameeducationasaboyoraman.
2.ChildrentheUnitedNationsCovenantontheRightsoftheChild(CRC)definesachildas
someonewhoisbelow theageof18whiletheMalawianConstitutionrecognizesany
personundertheageof16yearsasachild.Childrenareconsideredasaspecialgroup
becausetheyaredependent,havelow levelofphysical,emotionalandsocialmaturity
whichmightleadtodifferentabusesbyadults.
Someoftheformsofabusesfacedbyachildinclude:
a.Sexualexploitationbecauseadultsenticechildrenwithmoneyandothereconomic
opportunitiestohavesexwiththem.
b.Childlabourbyworkinginhazardousenvironmentandbeinggiventasksnot
matchingtheirage.
c.Victimsofdivorceandorphanageduetotheseparationanddeathofparentsthat
makethemtobehelpless.
d.Theyarenotallowedtomakedecisionsinsomesocietiesduetotheirageand
maturity.
3.Disabledpeopletheyfacethefollowingabuses:
a.Inequalityinemploymentopportunitiesbecausemostemployersview disabled
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peopleaseconomicallyunproductive,riskyandofferingnon-competitiveskills.
b.Inequalityineducationbecausetheyareperceivedasacademicallyincompetent.
c.Incapableofgettingmarriedbecauseoftheirbiologicalcharacteristics.
d.Biased priorities in a numberofsituations e.g.during wars,they mightbe
evacuatedafterthenormalpeoplehavebeenevacuated.
4.Refugeestheyfacethefollowingabuses:
a.Forcedlabourwheretheyareemployedandreceivepaymentnotmatchingtheir
skills.
b.Forcedmarriagesinordertobeacceptedintothehostcountry.
c.Forcednationalitiesinordertoconcealtheirnationalityforthegainofthehost
citizeninvolved.
d.Forcedallegiances(loyalty)especiallyinwarsituationinordertobeprotectedfrom
variousabuses.
e.Pooreducation and healthcare services since the hosts view refugees as
temporaryresidentshenceshouldnotreceiveadequateeducationandhealthcare.
5.Prisonersoraccusedpeopletheyareexposedtothefollowingformsofabuse:
a.Starvationwhichisfailingtobeprovidedwithenoughandnutritiousfood.
b.Poorhealthfacilitiesasawayofpunishingprisoners.
c.Nocontactwithrelativesandlegalservices(lawyers)becausetheyareviewedas
lesshuman.
d.Sexualabusebyfellowinmatesandprison/policeofficers.
6.Workerstheyfacethefollowingabuses:
a.Lowwageswheretheygetmoneywhichisnotmatchingtheirskills.
b.Hazardousworkenvironmentsespeciallythoseworking in themanufacturing
industry.
c.Lackoflegalmechanismstorepresentworkersrightssuchasbeingprohibitedto
joinunionsorassociationsfearingarrogance,lowproductivityandahigherwage
bill.
d.Unfairdismissalwhichmaketheworkersnottogetanyterminalbenefits.
Violationsofrightsofspecialgroups
1.Genocidethisisthedeliberatekillingalargegroupofpeople.Thisisusuallydirected
againsttheminoritygroupse.g.genocideoftheJewsinNazioccupiedGermanyin1930s
and1940s,killingsofonemillioneducatedcitydwellersbytheKhmerRougeregionin
Cambodiainthe1970saswellaskillingofaboutonemillionTutsisbytheHutuin
Rwandain1994.
2.ChildLabour–thisiswhenachildhastoworkeitherfull-timeorpart-timebutdonotgo
schools.Itisestimatedthatover100millionchildrenbetweentheageof10and14work
full-timeorpart-timewithmostofthem workinginAsiae.g.childreninChinaworkfor17
hourstoproducetoysfortheAmericanownedMcDonalds.
3.Discrimination untilthelate1960stherewasfrequentdiscriminationagainstblack
peopleintheUnitedStatesofAmericaespeciallyinthesouthernstates.
4.Forcedprostitutionthisiswhengirlsareenticedintothecitiesandforcedtobecome
prostitutes.Thegirlsarecollectedbyinternationalcriminalsyndicates(groupofpeople
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thatworktogethertoachieveacertaingoal).ForcedprostitutioniscommoninAsia
whereitisestimatedthatoveronemillionchildrenareinvolvedinthesextrade.The
syndicatesalsoworkinEasternEuropeandAfricawhosendthegirlstoWesternEurope
toworkasprostitutes.Inaddition,thereareover300,000childprostitutesinthestreetsof
UnitedStatesofAmerica.
5.Tortureofprisonersthisiscommoninmanycountriesandtakemanyformssuchas
beatings,electricshocks,whipping,deprivingtheprisonerofsleepandfood,suspension
bythewristsorankles,deaththreatsandthreatsofrape.Tortureiscommonlydoneto
women,youngpeopleandtheelderly.ItiscommoninEgyptianpolicestationsand
detentioncentres.
6.SlaveryitwascommonthreehundredyearsagowhenmanyAfricansweretakenas
slavestoworkintheislandsofCaribbeanandplantationsofNorthAmerica.Itis
estimatedthat27millionpeopleintheworldtodayareforcedtoworkbutarenotpaidor
getlowwages.Thisistheformofslavery.Modernslaveryisdonethroughbondedlabour.
Ithappenswhenapersontakesoutaloanlikeabottleofmedicineandpaysofftheloan
bybeingforcedtoworkforalongtime.Theyreceivefoodandshelterbutnotpayment.
7.Femalegenitalmutilationorfemalecircumcisionitinvolvesthepartialortotalremoval
ofexternalfemaleorgans.Itmaybeperformed atanyagebutmostvictimsare
adolescents.Itisdonetoreducesexualpleasure,toencouragegirlstobefaithfultotheir
husbands,to mark the transition to womanhood and to increase fertility.Itis
disadvantageousbecauseitaffectstheirabilitytohavetheirmentalhealthandalso
seriouslydamagesthefemalesexualorgans.ItiscommoninAfrica
Typesofhumanrights
1.Civilandpoliticalrightstheseareaimedatsafeguardingcivilandpoliticalparticipation
foreveryone.Theyarealsocalledfirstgenerationofhumanrightsbecausetheearliest
existingrightsdocumentscontainedmostlysuchrights.
Examplesinclude:
Therighttoanationality
Therighttoprivacy
Freedomofthought
Freedomofexpression
Freedomofassociation
Therighttoinformation
Therightnottobedeprivedofliberty
2.Economic,socialandculturalrights theyemphasizesocio-economicandcultural
developmentaswellassecurityofeveryperson.Theyarealsocalledsecondgeneration
ofhumanrightsbecausetheycameintoeffectafterthecivilandpoliticalrights.
Examplesinclude:
Therighttoadequatestandardofliving
Therighttoenjoyonesculture
Therighttotheminimumfairwage
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Therighttoenjoythehighestattainablestandardofhealth
Therighttoenjoythebenefitsofscientificprogressanditsapplications.
3.Solidarityorinterdependencehumanrightstheseareaimedatfosteringcooperation
andhelpingeachother.Theyarealsocalledthirdgenerationofhumanrightsbecause
theycameintoeffectaftertheothertwogroups.
Examplesinclude:
Therighttoformandjointradeunionsfortheprotectionofinterests
Therighttostrikeorengageinpeacefuldemonstration
Therightoftradeunionstoestablishnationalfederationsandtojoininternational
tradeunions
Therightoftradeunionstofunctionfreely
Internationallegalinstrumentsforpromotingandprotectingspecialgroupshumanrights
1.A Treaty aninternationalagreementbetweentwoormoregovernmentse.g.The
Southern African DevelopmentCommunity (SADC)and The North Atlantic Treaty
Organization(NATO).
2.AConvention–atreatyintendedtobindandbeobservedbymanycountriese.g.The
UnitedNationsInternationalCovenantonCivilandPoliticalRights.
3.AProtocol-anadditionalagreementintendedtobepartofatreatythatisalreadyinforce
e.g.AdditionalProtocoltotheInternationalCovenantonCivilandPoliticalRights.
4.ADeclaration–asetofprinciplesdeclaredasdesiredstandardsforstatesandother
partiesbutnotintendedtobebindinge.g.theDeclarationontheRightsoftheChild.
5.ARecommendationasetofstandardssuggestedtobefollowedbystatesinorderto
realize agreed standards or those in convention e.g.the InternationalLabour
Organizations(ILO)Recommendationno.19ontheTerminationofEmployment.
Internationalinterventionstoprotecthumanrightsofspecialgroups
1.TheConventionontheRightsofaChild(CRC)itwasadoptedbytheGeneralAssembly
oftheUnitedNationson20
th
November,1989andrecognizesanypersonundertheageof
18asachild.SomeofthespecialhumanrightsintheCRCinclude:
Therighttoaname
Therighttoanationality
Therighttoknowandberaisedbyparents
Therighttoreceivereasonablemaintenancebyparents
Therighttobeprotectedfrom exploitationandfrom treatmentorpunishmentthat
may:behazardous,interferewiththechildseducationandbeharmfultothechilds
healthortohisphysical,mentalandspiritualdevelopment.
2.ConventionontheEliminationofallformsofDiscriminationAgainstWomen(CEDAW)-it
wasadoptedandratifiedbytheGeneralAssemblyinDecember,1979.Itwentintoforce
on3
rd
September,1981.
CEDAWincludesthefollowingrights:
Therighttomarriage
Therighttoregulatefertility
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Therighttoinheritanceofproperty
Therighttoequalemploymentandpay
Therighttohaveaccesstoequaleconomicopportunities
Therighttobeprotectedfrom allformsofabuse,cruelty,discriminationand
exploitation.
3.Forum forAfricanWomenEducationalists(FAWE)–itwassetupin1992.Itconsistsof
influentialwomen policy-makers in African countries e.g.ministers ofeducation,
universityvicechancellorsandseniorpolicy-makers.Itisaimedatimprovinggirls
participationineducation.MostcountrieshavenationalchaptersofFAWE.
Institutionsormeasuresthatdealwithhumanrightsforspecialgroups
1.Internationallevel
a.AmnestyInternational anindependentinternationalhumanrightswatchdog
aimedatinvestigatingandreportinghumanrightsviolations.Ithasbothregional
andlocalrepresentativesfromallmembercountries.
b.InternationalRedCross–ithelpspeoplesufferingduetowar,floods,outbreaksof
diseasesandothers.InMuslim countrieswheretheimportanceofthecrossisnot
recognized,itiscalledtheInternationalRedCrescent.
c.InternationalCourtofJusticeoneoftheorgansoftheUnitedNationsaimedat
tryingoutinternationalhumanrightsviolations.Itdealswithcasessuchasborder
disputes,occupationofanothersterritoryandinternationalcriminals.Itislocated
intheHague,Netherlandsandhasrepresentativesfrom allmembersoftheUnited
Nations.
d.Specialtribunalsorspeciallawcourtssinceitsestablishment,theUnitedNations
SecurityCouncilhasestablishedvariousspecialtribunalstodealwithsuspected
violationsofthefour1949Genevaconventions.Examplesofthespecialtribunals
include:
i.TheInternationalcriminaltribunalfortheformerYugoslaviawhichwas
establishedinFebruary,1993.Itwasestablishedtodealwithviolations
committedintheformerYugoslaviasince1991andincludegenocide.
ii.Theinternationaltribunalagainstthe1991Rwandangenocidewhichwas
setupin1998.Itwasestablishedtohuntdown,captureandtryperpetrators
oftheRwandangenocide.ItisbasedinArusha,Tanzania.
iii.TheSouthAfricanTruthandReconciliationCommissionwhichwassetup
soonaftertheendofapartheid(Politicalsystem thatexistedinSouthAfrica
inwhichwhitepeoplehadmorepoliticalrightsandpowerthantheblacks)in
1993.Itwasestablishedtohearcasesofhumanrightsviolationsduringthe
apartheidera.Itsmainobjectivewastoestablishreconciliationbetweenthe
blacksandthewhites.
e.HumanRightsWatchitisbasedinNewYorkintheUnitedStatesofAmerica.It
wasformedin1988from mergingtwopreviousorganizationsnamely:Helsinki
WatchwhichwassetuptomonitorabusesintheOldSovietUnionandAmericas
WatchwhichwassetuptomonitorabusesinCentralAmerica.Someoftheworkof
HRWinclude:
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i.Callingforatreatytobantheuseofchildsoldiers.
ii.Campaigningagainsttheuseoflandminesinthe1990s.
iii.CampaignedforformerYugoslavialeaderstobetriedforwarcrimesinan
internationalcourt.
f.UnitedNationsHighCommissionforRefugees(UNHCR)–itwassetupin1951by
theGeneralAssemblyoftheUnitedNationstotakeavarietyofactionstohelpthe
refugees.
2.Locallevel
a.TheLawCommission
b.TheOmbudsman
c.Anti-CorruptionBureau
d.HumanRightsOrganizations
e.TheMalawiHumanRightsResourceCentre
TOPIC7:CONFLICTRESOLUTION
Aconflictisadisagreementbetweenindividualsorgroupsofpeopleoverapoint.
Internationalconflictsaredisagreementsbetweencountriesorwithincountriesbutrequire
interventionoftheinternationalcommunity.
Causesofinternationalconflicts
1.Religiousdifferenceswhicharedisagreementsbetweentworeligiousgroups.Major
conflictonreligioniscurrentlybetweenMuslimsandChristiansallovertheworldand
anotheroneisintheMiddleEastbetweentheIsraelisandthePalestinianswhereone
groupclaimssovereigntyoverJerusalem.
2.Ethnicdifferencescausedbytheneedofonegrouptobesuperiorovertheothere.g.in
RwandabetweentheHutusandTutsis.
3.Politicaldifferencesdonebetweentwopoliticalpartiesusuallytheoppositionandthe
rulingpartye.g.inZimbabwebetweenZANU-PFandtheMovementforDemocratic
Change(MDC).
4.Culturaldifferencesareduetodifferentculturalbackgroundse.g.inAfricawherethe
AfricansrejectedtheimpositionofWesternEuropeanculturaltraditionsonthem.
5.Individuallustforpowerwherepeople need to accumulatewealth and powerfor
themselves.
6.Boundariescauseconflictswhereonecountryoccupiestheterritoryoftheothere.g.in
AfricabetweenEthiopiaandEritrea.
Effectsofinternationalconflictondevelopment
1.Migrationofpeoplewhichisdisplacementofpeopleduetocivilwarsintheircountry.
2.Famine becausea countryatwardoes nothaveenough timeto concentrate on
developmentactivitieslikeagriculture.
3.Lowindustrialdevelopment1sincethegovernmentspriorityisontheimportationofarms
ratherthanmanufacturingessentialgoods.
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4.Lowliteracyratesespeciallytotherefugeeswhoareonlyprovidedwithbasiceducation
byinternationalhumanrightsagencies.
5.Creationofaviolentsocietybecauseyouthsbroughtupinconflictareasknownothing
apartfromaviolentsociety.
6.Widowhoodandorphanageduetothedeathofpeopleeitherassoldiersorcivilians.
7.Limitationofhumanrightssincecountriesexperiencingconflictspaylessattentionto
humanrights.
8.Destructionofproperty.
9.Deathsofpeople.
Conflictresolution
Thisiswhenthetwoconflictingpartiesreconcilethroughpeacefulmeansorinterventionbythe
thirdparty.
Themainstrategyforresolvinginternationalconflictsisbypeacefulnegotiationwhichfollows
principlesofcontactanddialogue.
Otherstrategiesincludeuseofadvocates,useofcourts,arbitrators(useofathirdparty),useof
sanctions(embargo)anduseofpeacekeepingforces.
Internationalorgansfordealingwithinternationalconflicts
1.TheUnitedNationsOrganizationthroughitsspecialorgancalledtheSecurityCouncil.
2.LeagueofNationscomposedof63countrieswhenitwasformedin1920.
3.InternationalcourtofJusticewithitsheadquartersattheHague,Netherlands.
4.Specialtribunals
Regionalorgansthatassistinconflictresolution
1.Southern African DevelopmentCommunity(SADC)which addresses problems within
SouthernAfrica.
2.EconomicCommunityofWestAfricanStates(ECOWAS)whichaddresseseconomic
issuesintheregion.
3.NorthAtlanticTreatyOrganization(NATO)whichrespondstomilitaryconflictswithinthe
region.
4.TheEuropeanUnion(EU)looksateconomicissuesinWesternEurope.
5.TheNorthAtlanticFreeTradeAgreement(NAFTA)whichisagroupingoftheUSA,
CanadaandMexicotoaddresstradeandeconomicissues.
Internationalpeaceinitiatives
1.TheTreatyofVersaillesandtheLeagueofNations–itwasheldinParis.Germanyand
otherdefeatednationswerenotallowedtositattheconferencewhileBritain,France,
ItalyandtheUnitedStatesdominatedtheconference.Harshtermswereimposedon
Germanysuchasgivingupsomeofitsterritoriesandgettingridofitsweapons.During
theSecondWorldWar,leadersofthecountrythatwerefightingGermanyandJapan
agreedto establishanew internationalpeacekeepingorganizationtoreplacethe
LeagueofNations.
2.PeaceinitiativesintheMiddleEastthefirstonewasheldin1978whentheUnited
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Statestooktheleadtoendconflict.LeadersofIsraelandEgyptsignedtheCampDavid
AccordwhichwasanimportantsteptowardspeacewhenEgyptrecognizedIsraelasa
countryforthefirsttime.TheothersteptakentowardspeaceintheMiddleEastwasin
1993 when Israeland the Palestinian Liberation Organization (PLO)signed the
DeclarationofPrinciplesinwhichtheyrecognizedeachothersrighttoexist.
3.A peaceinitiativeintheDRC warbrokeoutin1998andinvolvedsevenAfrican
countries.In1999,theUNpressurizedthewarringsidestohaveaceasefireandsigned
theLusakaPeaceAccordwhichaimedtoendwarpermanently.
Effectivenessofthepeaceinitiatives
Thesearenotusuallysuccessful.Forinstance,aftertheLusakaPeaceAccordin1999,the
ceasefirewasbrokenmanytimes.Inaddition,organizationsliketheUNssanctionson
conflictingsidesdonothaverequiredeffect.
Internationalorganizationshavebeenmoresuccessfulintheirpeaceinitiativesintheformer
Yugoslaviathathavepreventedfurtherconflicts.
RefugeecrisisinAfricaandtheworld
1.Angola–thegovernmentwasfightingarebelgroupcalledUNITAsince1975.Many
peoplebecamerefugeesin Zambia,Tanzania,Namibia,South Africa,Portugaland
Zimbabwe.
2.DemocraticRepublicofCongotheconflictwasbetweenthegovernmentandtherebels.
OthercountrieswereinvolvedsuchasUgandaandRwandathatsupportedrebelswhile
Zimbabwe,AngolaandNamibiasupportedthegovernment.Peoplefrom DRCfledtothe
GreatLakesRegioninvolvingUganda,Tanzania,Zambia,MalawiandCentralAfrican
Republic.
3.Somalia–therewasnocentralgovernmentsince1979solifewasdisorganizedwith
differentfactions controlling resources.ManySomalis havefled to Kenya,Eritrea,
Ethiopia,TanzaniaandWesternEurope.
4.SudanSudanPeoplesLiberationArmy(SPLA)hasbeenfightingforindependenceof
SouthernSudanfrom governmentruleforoverthirtyyears.Refugeesareconcentratedin
Uganda,Ethiopia,ChadandCentralAfricanRepublic.
5.SierraLeone,LiberiaandGuineaRevolutionaryUnitedFront(RUF),arebelmovement
hasbeeninconflictwithcurrentgovernmentinSierraLeonetoreplaceit.Liberiais
fightingrebelsfrom SierraLeoneandGuineawhileGuineaisfightingrebelscomingfrom
Liberia.RefugeesareconcentratedinNigeria,Ghana,GambiaandSenegal.
6.SriLankaLiberationTigersofTamilEeelam (LTTE)alsoknownasTamilTigershave
beenfightingsince1983fortheindependenceoftheminorityTamilstateinNESriLanka.
RefugeesareconcentratedinIndia,PakistanandMalaysia.
7.Yugoslavia–civilconflictsinvolveactsofgenocidewithrefugeesconcentratedinCzech
Republic,Germany,RussiaandCentralEurope.
8.Afghanistan FightingisbetweenTalibanforcesandtheNorthernAlliancefighters
leadingtotwomillionrefugeesinPakistan.
9.Middle East Itis between Israelis and Palestinians with Palestinian refugees
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concentratedinLebanon,Syria,JordanandWesterncountries.
Impactofrefugeesintheworld
1.Disintegrationoffamiliessincepeoplemayleavetheirfamiliesbehindormaylosefamily
members.
2.Pressureonlandresourcesforsettlement,buildingandothersocialfacilities.
3.Pressureonsocialservicessincerefugeesneedmedicalattention,education,markets
whichmaybeinadequate.
4.Pressureonfoodresourcesbecausethesuppliedfoodmaynotbeadequatetomeetthe
refugeesdailyneeds.
5.Lossofculturalidentitybecausetherefugeesarefarfrom theiroriginalhomessothey
cannoteattheirtraditionalfood,cannotconductcertaintraditionsandrituals.
6.Cross-bordercriminalactivitiesbecausethosefleeingtheircountriesmaycarryalotof
armswhichmaybeusedforcommittingarmedrobberiesinthehostcountry.Other
criminalactivitiesincludedrugtrafficking,smugglingoffood,sugarandfuel.
7.Lossofhumanresourcesbecauserefugeeswhofleetheircountrycouldcontribute
positivelytothedevelopmentofthenation.
8.Infectiousdiseasesbecauserefugeesmaycarrywiththem infectiousdiseasessuchas
malaria,tuberculosis,cholera,EbolaandHIV/AIDS.
Conventionsfortheprotectionofspecialgroups
1.The1929GenevaConventiononthetreatmentofPrisonersofWarsignedby47nations.
Prisonersofwarareprotectedinthefollowingways:
a.Nottobetorturedtorevealtheiridentityotherthanmilitaryrankandnumber.
b.Entitledtoadequatefoodandmedicalcare.
c.Toreceivelettersandparcels
d.Campstobeopenforinspection
2. The1949Conventionratifiedbymanycountrieswhichlaiddownhumanetreatmentof
prisonersduringwarandstressedthattheyshouldbefreedassoonaswarendedand
allowedtoreturntotheircountries.
3.TheRefugeeConventiondrawnupin1951andgaverefugeesthefollowingrights:
a.Rightnottobeforciblyreturnedtotheircountrywheretherefugeehasfearof
persecution.
b.Righttowork
c.Righttoeducation
d.Righttopublicreliefandassistance
e.Freedomofreligion
f.Freeaccesstocourts
g.Freedomofmovement
h.Righttobeissuedidentityandtraveldocuments
Challengesfacedinimplementationofconventions
1.Shortageofresourcessuchasfinancial,humanandmaterial.
2.Lackofcooperationfrom governmentssincesomegovernmentofficialsmayreact
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negativelytoreportsofhumanrightsviolationsanddenythatsuchactsexist.
3.Corruptionsincetheviolatorsmaypayhugesumsofmoneytoorgansthatdealwith
humanrightssothattheyareprotected.
4.Socialattitudesmakethesocietyviewsomespecialgroupswithanegativeattitude.For
instance,thedisabledmaybeviewedasthecondemned,prisonersviewedasbeasts
therefore,donotneedaspecialattention.
5.Lackofciviceducationontherightsofspecialgroupsandothermembersofthesociety.
TOPIC8:SOCIALJUSTICE
Socialjusticeiswheneveryoneinthesocietyistreatedfairlyandtheirrightsarerespectedby
institutionssuchasthegovernment,thepoliceandthelawcourts.
Principlesofsocialjustice
AccordingtotheWomenandLaw inSouthernAfrica(2000),therearethreemainprinciples
namely:
1.Likecasestobetreatedalikewhichmeanspeopleofequalcapacitiesareentitledtobe
treatedalikeregardlessoftheirsocialstatus,religion,home,race,tribe,sexandage.
2.Differentcasestobetreateddifferentlywhichmeanswherethereareclearlymarked
differencesinvolvingevolvingcapacitiesbetweenpeoplethenthosedifferencesmustbe
takenintoconsiderationwhenadministeringjustice.E.g.achildbroughtbeforealaw
courtcannotbetriedinthesamewayasanadultoffenderbecausethetwoaredifferent.
3.Rulesofnaturaljusticeshouldbefollowedwhichmeanstheuseofsameprinciplesof
naturaljusticeallovertheworldsuchasbeingconsideredasinnocentuntilprovenguilty
bythecourtoflaw.
Examplesofsocialjusticeintheschoolandthecommunity
1.Fairness
2.Justice
3.Respectofhumanrights
4.Favourablepunishmentstoall
5.Equaltreatmenttoall
6.Openness
7.Equalityindecisionmaking
8.Freedomofexpression
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Socialinjustice
Thisiswhenpeoplearenottreatedfairlyandtheirrightsarenotrespected.
Formsofsocialinjusticeintheschoolandthecommunity
1.Briberyandcorruption
2.Favouritismandnepotism
3.Preferenceforoneethnicgroupovertheother
4.Preferenceforonegenderovertheother
5.Discriminationagainstvariousgroupsofpeoplee.g.thedisabled
6.Underpayingworkers
CausesofsocialinjusticeinAfrica
1.Povertywhichislackofbasicnecessitieslikefoodandshelter.
2.Corruption-givingorreceivingmoneyorothermethodsofgratificationinordertowinor
inducefavours.
3.Briberygivingmoneyorpresentstosomeonesothattheyhelpyouindoingillegalor
dishonestacts.
4.Discrimination
5.Oppression
Effectsofsocialinjustice
1.Bitternessinpeople
2.Lossofconfidenceinpeople
3.Peoplefeelinferior
4.Laziness
5.Highcriminalactivities
6.Lowdevelopment
7.Stigmatization(afeelingthatsomethingiswrongorembarrassing)
8.Conflict
9.Poverty
Waysoferadicatingsocialinjusticeintheschoolandcommunity
1.Everyoneshouldparticipateindecision-making
2.Toleratingviewsofothers
3.Goodgovernance
4.Fairdecisionsorpunishments
5.Equalityandfairnessinprovisionofservices
6.Respectingpeoplesrights
7.Preventionofcrimes
Importanceofsocialjustice
1.Humanrightsofallarerespected.
2.Resourcesareallocatedfairly
3.Citizensaretreatedfairlybyauthoritiesandthelegalsystem
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4.Equalopportunitiesforalltoparticipateineconomicdevelopment
5.Peaceandsecurity
Organizationsthatdealwithinternationalsocialjusticeandinjustice
1.UnitedNationsprotectsandpromotestheintegrityofallpersonsintheworld.Italso
addressesvariousissuese.g.poverty,illiteracy,injustice,effectsofwarsand civil
conflicts.
2.InternationalPolice(Interpol) helpscountriestodealwith criminalsuspectsthat
operateinmorethanonecountry.Criminalactivitiesincludedrugtrafficking,prostitution
andcarhi-jacking.
3.AmnestyInternationalinvestigateandreportcasesofhumanrightsviolationsallover
theworld.
4.Humanrightsorganizationse.g.theOfficeoftheOmbudsmanandtheHumanRights
Commission.
Waysinwhichorganizationspromotesocialjustice
1.Monitoringsocialinjusticesintheworld.
2.Courttrialsforactsofsocialinjustice
3.Exposingsocialinjusticesinthemedia
4.Lobbyingforinternationalactionagainstcountriesthatpromotesocialinjusticee.g.
sanctions,freezingdonoraidandfreezingbankaccounts.
Successesandfailuresoforganizationsinpromotingsocialjustice
1.Success–theUnitedNationshasbeensettingupinternationaltribunalstobringtotrial
thoseaccusedofgenocideandothercrimesagainsthumanityinformerYugoslaviaand
Rwanda.
2.Failure manyindividualsthathavebeencommittingcrimesinCambodia,Angola,
Liberia,Sierra Leone and Mozambique forthe past50 years have notbeen held
accountableforanyofthesecrimes.
TOPIC9:SOCIAL,ETHICALAND
PERSONALDEVELOPMENT
Courtship
Courtshipistheperiodoftryingtoknowandunderstandtheprospectivemarriagepartner.This
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maylastforalongorashorttimealthoughtheparentmaybecomeanxiousifitgoesontoolong.
Waysofcourting
1.Individualorfacetofaceboyandgirlapproacheachotherfacetofaceinabus,train,
entertainmentcentres,sportsactivitiesorontheroad.Onemayalsowritealetter.
2.Thirdpartyorthroughafriend apersonsendsafriendorarelativetoproposeto
someonewhomheorshehasbeenattractedto.
3.Mediaadvertisementthroughnewspapers,e-mail,facebookandotherformsofmedia
wherepeopleinvitemembersoftheoppositesextoproposetothem.
Basicstepstowardscourtship
1.Theencounterwhenthetwomeetjustbycoincidenceorotherreasons.
2.Attractionwhenthetwowhohavemetorhavebeenmeetinggetattractedtoeachother.
Thismaybeonesidedorbothways.
3.Communicationproposingsideusuallythemanorboycommunicatetotheotherhis
feelings.
4.Courtshippositiveanswertotheproposalleadstocourtshipwhileanegativeanswer
willthereforecutthewholeprocess.
Importanceofcourting
1.Partnersknoweachotherspersonality,valuesandbeliefs.
2.Theylearneachothersattitudesandgoals.
3.Theyknowtheirpartnersfamilymembers
4.Theyresolveanydifference
Marriage
Thisisalegalunionbetweenamanandawomanlivingasahusbandandwife.
Or
Thisiswhenamanandwomanpromisetostaytogetherfortherestoftheirlives.
Reasonsformarriage
1.Tohavechildrenandbringthemup.
2.Tohavesexualitywithoneswifeorhusbandinanexclusiveway.
3.Toenjoylifelongfriendship,companionshipandemotionalsecurity.
4.Tomakeacommitmenttothepersonyoulove.
Factorsconsideredwhenchoosingamarriagepartner
1.Characterorpersonality orappearance a partnermusthave good behaviour,
cleanlinessandbewellgroomed.
2.Religiousfaith–partnersshouldknoweachothersdenominationtoavoiddifferencesin
beliefswhentheygetmarriedandalsoiftheybelongtodifferentreligiousgroups,they
agreewhomtofollowtheother.
3.Educationalbackgroundpeopleshouldknow theirpartnerseducationalbackground
beforegettingmarried.
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4.Healthstatus–partnersneedtoknowhealthandassociatedproblemsordiseasessuch
asHIV/AIDSandAsthma.
5.Skillsandknowledgeinruralareas,youngmenandwomenlookforparticularskills
whenchoosingpartnerse.g.buildingahouse,storagebarnsandfences.
6.Socializationwherepartnersmustbeabletomixwithothers.
7.Emotionalstatus
Waysofpreparingformarriage
1.Abstinencefrom premaritalsexwherepartnersshouldnotengageinsexualactivities
duringcourtshiptoavoidSTDsandunplannedpregnancies.
2.Longcourtshipperiodforadequatepreparation.
3.Buildingahomeformakingvariousdecisionsconcerningtheirlife.
4.HIV/AIDStestingsothattheyknow eachothersHIVstatustomakerightdecisions
concerningtheirmarriage.
5.Soundfinancialbasetobeabletobuybasicnecessitiessuchasfood,clothes,education
resourcesandalsoaccessmedicalservices.
6.Soundemploymenttomaintaintheirfinancialstand.
Waysofenteringintomarriage
1.Traditionalorcustomarywhenamanhasidentifiedapotentialmarriagepartner,he
informshisuncleorauntwhoofficiallyproposetothewomanthroughherparents.Onthe
dayofthemarriageceremony,thewomansparentspresenthertotheprospective
husbandthroughacelebrationwhichmayinvolvedancingandfeasting.
2.ChristiancelebrationitiscelebratedunderChristianlawbyapriestinachurch.Every
religiouscelebrationdemandsaninitialtraditionalsystemfirst.
3.CivilmarriageitisconductedintheRegistrarGeneralsoffice.Anappointmentismade
3weeksbeforethemarriagedaytogivechancetopeoplewithobjections.Itisdonebyan
authorizedgovernmentofficer.
4.Muslim ceremony–itinvolvesthesigningofcontractwiththebridesfatherorguardian
beforetwomalemuslim witnesses.Theimam preachesandthenthecoupleexchanges
rings.
5.Civicmarriage–itisconductedataciviccouncilbyeitherthemayororchairmanofthe
council.Itbecomesvalidbytheciviltypeofmarriage.
6.Elopement itisanarrangementwhereamanandwomanarrangetosecretlyget
married.Itisquestionabletoundergothisceremonybecauseifthetwodothisinsecrecy
itmaymeanthateitheroneorbothofthem alreadybelongtoanothermarriageandhave
decidedtorunawayfrom suchmarriagesorthemarriageisobjectionabletosome
membersofthefamilyorcommunity.
7.Co-habitationanarrangementwhereamanandwomanlivetogetherinahouseand
sometimesmaygoaheadtohavechildrenbutarenotofficiallymarried.Itmaycome
becausethetwomayfindthemarriagepreparationprocesstoolongandinvolving,pre-
maritalsexduringcourtshipmighthaveledtounwantedpregnancyoritmaybeoutof
choice.
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Factorsthathelptopreservemarriage
1.Honestywhichmeansbeingtruthfultoeachotherandmustdiscussissueswithout
hiding.
2.Freechoiceofmarriagepartnerwherethetwopartnersshouldbeallowedtocontacteach
otherbeforeamarriagearrangement.
3.Forgivingandforgettingwhichmeanspartnersmustdiscusstheirdifferencesandif
someonehasmadeamistake,heorshemustapologize.
4.Fidelitywhichmeansbeingloyalandfaithfultoeachotherbyavoidingadultery.
5.Perseverancebybeingabletoresistdailyproblemstoavoidbreakingupmarriages.
6.Mutualcarewherepartnerscareforeachotherinallaspectsoftheirmarriagelikelooking
afterthehousehold,childrenandeachotherwhenoneissick.
7.Communicationwherepartnersshouldtelleachotherwhatishappeningandhowthey
feel.
Responsibleparenthood
Itreferstotheprovisionofbasicneedstothefamilysuchasfood,love,clothingandshelter.
Italsoinvolvessocializationwhichhelpschildrento:
Knowthedifferencesbetweenrightandwrong
Behaveinappropriatemanner
Respectelders
Valuetheimportanceoftraditionandcommunitycustoms
Givevaluetoanyhardwork
Socialandethicalvalues
Asocialvalueisapractice,ideaorbeliefthatpeoplebelongingtoaparticulargrouporsociety
holdinrespectorhighesteem.
Anethicalvalueisageneralidea,practiceorbeliefwhichinfluencesthewayaparticulargroup
ofpeopleorsocietyconsidersgoodorbadbehaviour.
Internationalsocialandethicalvalues
1.Appreciationofotherpeoplesculturewherepeopleviewotherpeoplesculturepositively.
2.Respectforpeoplesrightsbynotinfringingonotherpeoplesrights.
3.Racialorethnicequalityin which racialand ethnicidentitiesofpeopleshould be
respected
4.Respectfortheruleoflaw byobservingandrespectingalllawsandinternationally
acceptablelaws.
5.Freedom ofworshipbyrespectingindividualchoiceofreligionandfreedom ofother
peopletoworshipwithinthecommunity.
6.Respectforinternationalhealthrequirementsespeciallyapersontravellingtoanother
countryshouldbecertifiedfreefrom diseasessuchassmallpox,yellow feverand
HIV/IDS.
7.Respectforinternationalimmigrationrequirementsinordertoregulatetheflowofpeople
sotravellershavetocarryaproofoftheiridentitysuchasapassportandhealth
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certificates.
8.Sympathyandempathy(whenonecanimaginewhatisliketogothroughthesame
experienceassomeoneelse)whichmeanspeopleshouldbemovedbythesufferingof
others.
Contributionsofsocialandethicalvaluesforinternationallife
1.Leadstopeace
2.Scientificandeconomicdevelopment
3.Enhanceculturalexchange
4.Promotesinternationalsecurity
5.Developseducation
6.Respectofotherpeoplesrights
TOPIC10:POPULATIONAND
DEVELOPMENT
Thetotalpopulationofanysocietycanchangeeitherthroughincreasingordecreasing.Thetotal
populationoftheworldhasbeenincreasingbecausethetotalpopulationsofmanycountries
havebeenincreasing.
Factorsthatleadtopopulationchange
1.Birthratemeansnumberoflivebirthsinoneyearforevery1000people.Itismainly
affectedbyfertilityrate(averagenumberofchildrenborntoawoman)whichmeanshigh
birthratesincreasepopulationofanarea.
2.Deathratemeansnumberofdeathsinoneyearper1000ofapopulation.Highdeath
rateswouldresultintoareductioninthepopulationofthecountry.
3.Infantmortalityratemeansnumberofchildrenwhodonotliveuntiltheageofone.
4.Epidemicswhichmeansoutbreakofdiseaseshasanimpactofreducingthepopulationof
anareabecausetheykillalotofpeoplewithinashortperiodoftime.
5.Naturaldisasterssuchasfloodsandearthquakeskillmanypeopleatthesametimethus
leadingtoareductioninpopulation.
6.Unemploymentaffectspopulation.Forexample,ruralareashavelowpopulationdueto
high unemploymentlevelswhileurban areashavehigh population becausepeople
migratetotheseareastoaccessemployment.
7.Warsmakepeopletofleetheirareasthusleadingtolowpopulationinconflictareaswhile
peacefulareashavehighpopulation.
8.Migrationwhichmaybethroughemigration(movementofpeoplefrom theircountryto
liveinanothercountry)andimmigration(movementofpeopleintoaforeigncountry).This
maybeduetosocial,economicandpoliticalreasonsthusemigrationreducespopulation
whileimmigrationincreasespopulation.
9.Accessibilitytofinancialresourceswhichmeanspeoplebecomeattractedtoareaswith
manyopportunitiesoffinancialopportunitiestherebyincreasingthepopulationofanarea.
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10.Maternalmortality(womenwhodiewhengivingbirth)affectsthepopulationbecause
highermaternalmortalityleadstoareductioninpopulationwhilelowmaternalmortality
ratesresulttohighpopulation.
Effectsofpopulationgrowth
1.Pressureonresourcessuchasland,forestsandwater.
2.Lossofhumanresourcesduetofoodinsecurity.
3.Povertyduetolackofaccesstosocialandeconomicservices.
4.Unemploymentbecausethepopulationishighercomparedtothenumberofjobs.
5.Overcrowdingwhichcanresultintoeasyspreadofinfectiousdiseases.
6.Increaseincrimebecausemanypeoplecannotaccessbasicnecessities.
7.Pollutionduetoimproperwastedisposals.
8.Foodinsecurity.
Impactofpopulationgrowthondevelopment
1.Loweringofqualityofservicese.g.educationandhealth.
2.Highlevelsofpoverty
3.Lossofpeaceandsecurity
4.Environmentaldegradation.
5.Illness
6.Highmortalityrates
Populationcontrol
Theseareeffortstoslowpopulationgrowththroughactiontolowerfertility.
Or
Itisthereductionofpopulationsizeofacountry.
Waysofcontrollingpopulationgrowth
1.Naturalmethods
a.Epidemics–diseasesthatarecapableofspreadingandkillingalotofpeople
withinashortperiodoftimee.g.theEbolavirus,yellowfeverandMeningitis.
b.Droughtwhichisanabnormallyprolongeddryspellthatcancausedeathofmany
peopleespeciallythosethatdependonagriculture.
c.Faminewhichistheextremescarcityoffoodthatcausesdeathofpeople.
d.Naturaldeathbecausepeoplearemadenottoliveeternally.
2.Man-made
a.Wars
b.Familyplanningwhichmeansconsciouseffortofcouplestoregulatethenumber
ofspacingofbirthsthroughartificialandnaturalmethodsofcontraception.
Importanceofcontrollingpopulationgrowth
1.Reducesovercrowdinginmanyplaces.
2.Reducesenvironmentaldegradation.
3.Ensureavailabilityofresources.
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4.Reducesunemployment
5.Goodprovisionofsocialservices
6.Foodsecurity
7.Lowurbanization
Environmentalconservation
Thesearemethodstoprotectnaturalresourcessothattheyarepermanentlyavailable.
Or
Theseareprinciplesandpracticesthathelptokeeptheenvironmentsafeandingoodcondition.
Importanceofenvironmentalconservation
1.Preservationofspeciesofplantandanimal.
2.Avoidinglandandsoildegradation
3.Maintainingplantandanimaldiversity
4.Improvingproductivitysincenutrientsareconserved.
Humanpracticesthatdestroylivingandnon-livingthings
1.Pollutionoftheland,airandwaterbecauseofdisposingdomesticwastesintorivers,
constructionofpitlatrinesorwells,usingbushlatrines,smokinginpublicplaces,fishing
usingherbs.
2.Carelesscuttingdownoftreesforfuelwood,charcoal,timber,settlementandcultivation.
3.Poaching(illegalhuntingofwildanimals)becausetheywantfood,concoctionsfor
medicinaluseandivoryfromelephants.
4.Overfishingduetoahighdemandcausedbyanincreaseinpopulation.
5.Overstocking(keepingofmoredomesticanimalsthanapieceoflandcansustainably
hold)andovergrazing.
Consequencesofdestroyingtheenvironment
1.Climaticchange
2.GlobalwarmingwhichcauseswarmingupoficyregionsofArcticandAntarctica.This
maymakethesealevelstoriseandeventuallyleadtofloods.
3.Heavyuseofenergyresultstorapiduseofnon-renewableresources.
4.Soilerosionanddesertificationduetodeforestation.
5.Poverty,illhealthandstarvationduetolossoffertility.
6.Speciesofflora(plants)andfauna(animals)shallbecomeextinct.
7.Warswillbefoughtonwaterduetotheeverincreasingpopulationontheland.
8.Scarcityofwater.
ThePopulationPolicyofMalawi
Itwasformulatedin1994andwasinfluencedbythefollowingfactors:
1.Highfertilityrate
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2.Rapidpopulationgrowth
3.Highdependencyburden(50%ofpopulationisunder15yearshencemanypeopleare
dependants)
4.Pressureonlandandsocialservices.
5.Unemploymentproblems.
Elementsofthepopulationpolicy
1.Demographicandfamilyplanningwhichhasthefollowingobjectives:
a.Toachievealowerpopulationgrowthrate.
b.Tolowerfertility,infant,childandmaternalmortality.
c.Toreduceadolescentmarriagesandteenagepregnancies.
d.Toslowdownthehighrateofurbanization.
2.Information,educationandcommunicationwhichhasthefollowingobjectives:
a.Toenhanceprogrammeswhichincreaseawarenessofthepopulationproblems
andfacilitateaccesstoinformationaboutcontraceptives.
b.Toimproveaccess,quality,efficiencyandvocationalrelevanceofprimaryschool
andinformaleducationalsystems.
c.Tosystematicallyintegratepopulationeducationinformalschoolsystem and
otherinstitutionsoflearning.
3.Genderanddevelopmentwhichhasthefollowingobjectives:
a.Toimprovethestatusoftheyouthandwomeninallspheresofdevelopment.
b.Toensurefoodsecurityandadequatenutritionformothersandchildren
4.Researchandenvironmentwhichhasthefollowingobjectives:
a.Toimprovethestatusoftheyouthandwomeninallspheresofdevelopment
b.Toensurefoodsecurityandadequatenutritionformothersandchildren
5.Employmentwhichhasthefollowingobjectives:
a.Toimproveentrepreneurial,managerialandotherrelevantskillsforthecountrys
labourforce.
b.Toincreaseproductiveemploymentandmoreequitabledistributionofresources.
Practicesthataffecttheimplementationofthepopulationpolicy
1.Polygamy(havingmorethanonewife)whichmayleadtoSTDsincludingHIV/AIDShence
manypeopledie.
2.Religiousbeliefsinsomereligionsprohibittheirmemberstousecontraceptives.This
mayaffectchildspacinginfamilies.
3.Initiationceremonieswhichbringbadpracticessuchasfisi(sexualpracticeswithagirl
undergoinginitiation)canleadtothespreadofSTDsaswellasunwantedpregnancies.
4.Moraldecay such as prostitution and drug abuse can lead to STDs,unwanted
pregnanciesandmentalillnesses.
5.WifeorhusbandinheritanceorchokolocanfacilitatethespreadofSTDsandhigh
population.
6.WidowcleansingcanleadtohighpopulationandspreadofSTDsincludingHIV/AIDS.
Waysoferadicatingpracticesthataffecttheimplementationofthepopulationpolicy
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1.Publicawarenesscampaignstosensitizethepublicthenegativeeffectsofsuchpractices.
2.Womenempowermentwhichmightmakeawomantoknowherrightsandhencesayno
tosuchpractices.
3.Useoflegislationtopunishthosethatarecaughtfacilitatingthesepractices.
Strategiesforimplementingthepopulationpolicy
1.Information,educationandcommunication
a.Formarriedcouplesrelayclearmessagesaboutfamilyplanningusingpersonal
contacts,eye-catching posters,written information,drama traditionaldances,
proverbsandthemedia.
b.Foryoungpeopleconveymessagesabout:
i.Humansexualityandhowreproductiontakesplace.
ii.Dangersofunprotectedsexe.g.unwantedpregnanciesandSTDs.
iii.Accurateinformationaboutdifferentcontraceptives
iv.Theneedforboystotakeresponsibilityfortheirsexualbahaviour,torespect
girlsandacceptthatgirlshaveauthorityovertheirbodies.
v.Needforgirlstodevelopselfrespectandsaynotocasualsex.
vi.Highhealthrisksinvolvedinearlypregnancies.
vii.Highrisksinvolvedinabortione.g.itisagainstthelaw,canleadtoinfertility
andevendeath.
2.Researchcollectingdataatfrequentintervalsbyexaminingrecordsofbirths,deaths,
hospitalandemployersrecordsandcensusrecordsaswellasconductinginterviewsfor
people.
3.Familyplanningservicedeliverypeopleshouldhaveeasyaccesstofamilyplanning
facilitiestogetcontraceptiveservicesandadviceoncontraceptives.
4.Genderanddevelopmentaspectsofthisstrategyinclude:
a.Tochangetraditionalattitudesandpracticeswhichdiscriminateagainstwomen
andgirls.
b.Topromotefemaleeducation
c.Toincreaselevelsoffemaleparticipationincommunityprogrammes.
d.Toraiseawarenessofwomenslegalrights.
e.Toprovidedaycarecentresforwomenatwork.
f.Toprovideequalpayforequalwork.
g.Toassistsingleparenthouseholdswithadviceonhowtogenerateincome.
5.Advocacy keyindividualsandgroupsestablishlinkswithdecision-makinginthe
communityand getmessagesaboutfamilyplanning,responsibleparenthood,safe
motherhoodandsmallsizedfamilies.
ProgrammesforimplementingtheMalawiPopulationPolicy
1.Reproductivehealth itwas adopted asa key programme afteran International
ConferenceonPopulationandDevelopmentheldinCairoin1994.ItisrunbytheMinistry
ofHealthandPopulationanditscomponentsincludefamilyplanning,safemotherhood,
adolescentreproductivehealth,preventionandmanagementofSTDsincludingHIV/AIDS.
Ittargetsmen,womenandtheyouth.
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2.Safemotherhooditwaslaunchedin1996toreducethematernalmortalityfigureto310
forevery100,000birthsandtargetswomen.
3.NationalAdolescentReproductiveHealthProgrammeaneedsassessmentwasdoneon
adolescentreproductivehealthin1998andsetupthefollowingactivities:
a.Moraltraininginprimaryandsecondaryschoolscurriculum.
b.GABLEprojectworkingwithtraditionalleadersinmoraltrainingandessentiallife
skillse.g.decision-makingandnegotiation.
c.Someyouthgroupsareprovidingreproductivehealtheducationtotheirpeers.
d.Messagesonresponsiblesexualpracticesthroughposters,pamphlets,t-shirtsand
theradio.Ittargetstheyouthespeciallyadolescents.
4.Information,EducationandCommunication(IEC)messageswouldbeconveyedina
clear,friendlyandculturallyacceptablewayusingpicturesandstories.Ittargetseveryone.
5.GenderthesearedonebyboththegovernmentandNGOstoaddressgenderissuese.g.
girlsAttainmentinBasicLiteracyandEducation(GABLE)andForum forAfricanWomen
EducationalistsinMalawi(FAWEMA).Ittargetsmen,womenandtheyouth.
6.Advocacy–programmesareaimedatsupportingaparticularcauseorissueandmainly
promotechangeinpolicy,programmesorlegislationandcreateasupportiveenvironment
forprogrammes.Itdeals with issues e.g.rights ofadolescentsto contraceptives,
maternityleave,domesticviolenceandgenderequality.Ittargetseveryone.
Peopleneedtoworktogethertoensurethattheobjectivesofthepopulationpolicyareachieved
effectively.
GuidanceandcounsellingonHIV/AIDS
Guidanceandcounsellinginvolvesfacetofaceinteraction(communication)betweentheperson
withaproblem andtheonetryingtosolvetheproblem.Counsellingprovidespeoplewith
informationthathelpstosolveadifficultdecisionoreffectsofthediseases.
Voluntarycounsellingandtesting(VCT)istheimportantnationalplanningforfightingthis
disease.Thepersonofferingadviceisknownasacounsellorandthepersonreceivingthe
adviceisaclient.
Typesofcounselling
1.Pre-test itisdonebeforeoneistestedforHIV/AIDS.Theclientisinformedthe
importanceofthetest,strictconfidentialityandisgiventimetomakeadecision.This
preparestheclientpsychologicallytoaccepttheresults.
2.Post-testitisdoneafterthetest.ThosewhoareHIVnegativearecounselledonhow
theycanavoidbeinginfected.ForthosewhoareHIVpositive,theyareadvisedonhowto
conducttheirsexualbehaviour,typesoffoodtheyshouldeat,issuesaboutchildrenand
howtostaywiththeirpartnerifmarried.
3. ContinuingitisdonetopeoplewhohavebeendiagnosedHIVpositivefrom timeto
timeathome,hospitalsorotherplaces.
4.Pastoralitisofferedbyreligiousleaderswhogivespiritualguidancetogivehopeto
HIV/AIDspatientsandguardiansusingBiblemessagesbyencouragingfaithfulnessin
marriageandabstinence.
5.Preventive–itisgiventothosewhoareHIVnegativebutwhosebehaviourputsthem at
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ariskandalsotothosewhoareHIVpositivetohelpthemlookaftertheirhealthandavoid
spreadingthedisease.
6.Supportive–itisofferedtopatients,guardiansandfamiliestohelpthem solveproblems
broughtbythediseasetomakefutureplans.Italsoprovidessupporttorelativesduring
bereavementtime.
InstitutionsthatprovideguidanceandcounsellingonHIV/AIDS
1.Publicandprivatehospitals theseprovideinformationonHIV/AIDS,screeningof
peopleforHIV/AIDSandtreatmentofotherdiseasessufferedbyHIV/AIDSpatients.
2.BanjaLaMtsogolo–theseprovidereproductivehealth,guidanceandcounsellingand
publicawarenesstowardsHIV/AIDS.
3. Dropincentresthesearesimplefacilitieswhichprovideguidanceandcounselling,
publicawarenesstowardsHIV/AIDS.Theyarecommunitybased.
4.NGOse.g.PlanInternationalMalawi,ActionAidMalawi,MalawiAIDSCounsellingand
ResourceCentre(MACRO).
5.Religiousorganizationse.g.AdventistandReliefAgency(ADRA)andBlantyreChristian
Centre.
6.CommunityBasedOrganizations SalimaAIDSSupportOrganizationandFriendsof
AIDSandSupportTrustinNsanje.
7.Youthorganizations
8.Companies
MethodsofguidingandcounsellingHIV/AIDSpatientsandguardians
1.Home-basedcaresupervisorsthisiswhenmembersofahouseholdwithHIV/AIDS
patientsandselectedpeoplefrom thecommunityaretrainedtoprovideguidanceand
counsellingintheirownhome.ItisdoneathomebecauseHIV/AIDSisachronicdisease
thatlastsmonthsoryears,soapatientmaybemovingfrom hometohospitaland back
againforseveraltimes.
2.Peercounsellingthisiswhenpeopleofthesamecharacteristicswithrespecttoageor
socialstatuse.g.youths,politicians,communityleaders,guardiansofHIV/AIDSpatients
andtraditionalhealerseducateandinfluenceeachother.Thesearetrainedto:
a.Discussdangersofpromiscuousbehaviour
b.TeachwaystopreventHIV/AIDS
c.ProvidesupportiveadviceandlovetoHIV/AIDSpatients.
3.Mantomanitmakesuseofmentocounselothermensincetheyarefreewithfellow
menandnotwomenortheirspousestotalkaboutthisdisease.
Inaddition,mentendtohavemorespouses(sexualpartners)whichleadstothespread
ofHIV/AIDS,sotheyneedtobeused.BLM hasthisprogrammewheremeninvillages,
workplacesandothercommunitiesareeducatedon:
a.Awarenessofsymptomsandtreatmentofsexuallytransmitteddiseases.
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b.InformationonHIV/AIDS
c.Informationonfamilyplanningandresponsiblesexualbehaviour
d.Useofcondoms
e.PreventiveandsupportivecounsellingtoHIV/AIDS
4.Useofhospitalbasedcounsellors-trainedhealthpersonnelfrom bighospitals,clinics
anddispensariesprovideguidanceandcounselling toHIV/AIDSpatients,guidanceand
HIV/AIDSnegativepeople.
ImportanceofcounsellingHIV/AIDSpatientsandguardians
1.Diffusefears,feelingsandworries.
2.Makepeopletochangetheirbehavioursandattitudes.
3.HelptofindreliablesolutionstoHIVinfection.
4.Offershopeandconfidencetopatients.
5.Helppeopletoknow therelationshipbetweenothersexuallytransmitteddiseasesand
HIV/AIDS
6.ReducesHIV/AIDSinfections
7.Reducesdiscriminationorstigmatization
Consequencesoflackofguidanceandcounselling
1.HIV/AIDSpatientsliveinfearandanxietywhichcanmakethemcommitsuicide.
2.Patientsandguardiansfacediscriminationbythefamilymembersandthesociety.
3.HIV/AIDSpatientswillcontinuetobespreadsincepeopledonotknowmuchaboutthis
disease.
4.Patientsandotherscannotchangetheirattitudesandbehaviour.
SexuallyTransmittedDiseasesandHIV/AIDSinMalawi
STDsarediseasestransmittedthroughsexualintercoursewithapersonwhoisalreadyinfected
with thedisease.Examplesincludesyphilis(chindoko),gonorrhea (chonzonono),Candida
(mauka)andHIV/AIDS.
ImportanceofcaringforSTDandHIV/AIDSpatients
1.Theydevelopasenseofbelongingsincetheyarecaredfor.
2.Givesapatienthopewhichmeansheisassuredoflivinglongerandrelativeswillbecared
forwhenhedies.
3.Improvestheirqualityoflifesincetheyareinclosecontactwithpeople.Thiscontact
removesstress,anxietyanddepression.
4.Decreasesstigmasinceleadersareinvolvedincaringforpatientshencethecommunity
followsthesetexample.
5.StrengthensHIV/AIDSpreventiontoothersthatanyonecanbeatriskwithreferenceto
patientsexperiences.
WaysofcaringforSTDandHIV/AIDSpatients
1.Supportbyguardiansandothercaretakersinthehospitalsandathomewhocounsel
patients,spendalotoftimewiththem,showtheirloveanddohouseholdtasks.
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2.Provisionofnutritiousfoodandothernecessitiessuchasenergygiving,bodygivingand
protectivefoods.Theyshouldbetoldtoavoidsmokinganddrinkingalcoholaswellas
advisedtobesleepingoncleanclothing.
3.Patientsshouldbeencouragedtoseekearlymedicalassistance.Forexample,patients
sufferingfrom curableSTDsshouldgetthetreatmentbeforethesituationworsensand
thosesufferingfrom HIV/AIDSshouldlookforlifeprolongingdrugsprovidedforfreeand
soldinbothpublicandprivatehospitals.
4.Spiritualandmoralsupportprovidedbyreligiousleadersbyprayingtogivethepatients
hopeandencouragement.
Importanceofhospital-basedandhome-basedcareforHIV/AIDSpatients
1.Hospital-based
a.HelpstreatmentofHIV/AIDSrelateddiseaseslikepneumonia,tuberculosisand
skindiseases.
b.Minimizesthere-infectionofSTDsbecausethepatientisnotinsexualcontactwith
infectedpeopleandpartners.
c.Thereisprolongingoflifesincethepatientiscloselymonitoredbyspecialists.
d.Preventoverburdeningofindividualsathomeespeciallywomenwhoperformmany
taskstopatients.
e.Relativesaregivenadviceonhowtocareforpatients.
2.Home-basedcare
a.Reducesriskofcontractingotherdiseaseswhicharebroughtbycongestionin
hospitals.
b.Reduces costswhich can beaccumulated byhospitalvisits,supporting the
patientswithfood,medicalbillsandclothing.
c.Reducescareburdeninhospitalsbecausehealthservicesarenotprovidedtoalot
ofpeople.
d.Relativesareabletodootherdutieswhenthepatientisathomethaninhospitals.
e.Goodbasichomecaremakesthepatienttobeactiveandproductive.
f.HelpstodestigmatiseHIV/AIDS
g.EducatesfamiliesandcommunitiesaboutHIV/AIDSprevention
h.Providesassuranceofloveandaffectionbecausepeoplefeelcomfortedattheir
homeswhentheyarewithfriendsandrelatives.
WaysinwhichguardianscanavoidcontractingHIV/AIDS
1.Coveringbrokenskin,soresorcutswithwaterproofplastersordressingbeforecontact
withpatients.
2.Washingbloodstainedclotheswithchemicaldisinfectantsorathightemperatures.
3.Safedisposalofwastecontaminatedwithbloodandbodyfluids.
4.Wearingglovesandgownswhenhandlingpatients.
5.Washhandswithsoapbeforeandafterhandlingpatients.
6.Avoidsharingpersonalitemsthatmighthavebloodonthemsuchastoothbrushes,dental
appliances,razorsornail-groomingequipment.
7.Avoidkissingifanyonehasbleedinggumsandmouthsores.
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Drugandsubstanceuseandabuse
Adrugisanysubstancethathasaphysicaleffectonhumanbeing.Therealotofdrugswhich
are used to cure diseases such as antibiotics(cure infections),analgesics(controlpain),
anaesthetics (eliminate sensation especially when doing operation),narcotics (to make
someonesleepyandstoppain),stimulants(makesomeoneactive).
Whenadrugisusedforsomepurposesthanwhatitisintendedfor,wesayitisabused.Drugs
frequentlyabusedincludeheroin(narcotic),cocaine(stimulant),valium(depressant),cannabis,
aspirinandhallucinogens(makesomeoneseewhatisnotthere).Substancesthatareabused
includetermic,glue,alcoholandpetrol.Peoplemisusedrugsbecausepeoplebelievetheywill
makethemfeelhappy,moreintelligentandmorerelaxed.
Causesofdrugandsubstanceuseandabuse
1.Peerpressure
2.Lackofadequatefamilysupport
3.Lackofparentalsupervision
4.Excessunsupervisedtime
5.Lowtoleranceforfrustration
6.Increasedaccesstodrugsespeciallyhealthworkers
7.Tobecomeaddicted
Effectsofdrugandsubstanceabuse
1.Totheindividual
a.Becomeviolentandaggressive
b.LeadtounprotectedsexwhichresultintoSTDs
c.Breakdownofmarriages
d.Socialisolation
e.Lossofemployment
f.Death
g.Insanityormadness
h.Lungcancer
i. Heartfailureandrespiratorydiseases
j. Badperformanceatschool
k.Accidents
l. Impotence
2.Tothefamily
a.Lossofmoneyusedforbuyingandformedicalcaresincedrugabusershave
healthrisks.
b.Familylivesinfearandanxietysincetheabuserbecomesviolentandmentallyill
c.Lowproductivitybecauseafamilymemberbecomesmentallyillsoheorshecan
notassistinthework
d.Deathcausedbyirresponsiblebehaviourandroadaccidents
e.Lossofemploymenthencelackofsupporttothefamily.
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Impactofdrugandsubstanceabuseondevelopment
1.Lossofwelltrainedpeoplesincedrugabusersareatahealthrisk,theymaydieearly
withouthelpingmuchonthedevelopmentofthecountry.
2.Pressureonhealthservicessincetheabuserswhoaresickneedalargeamountof
moneyforbuyingdrugs.Thismoneywouldhavebeenusedonotherdevelopmental
activities.
3.Distortionofage-sexstructurebecausemanyyouthsandmalesaredrugabuserswhich
willdistorttheirageandstructurehencelowcontributionstodevelopment.
4.Increasedjuveniledelinquencysincemanyyouthsareinvolvedinmanycasessuchas
rapeandrobberieswhichmeanstheywillendupinprison.Asaresult,theycannot
contributetodevelopment.
5.Increasedorphanagesbecausemanydrugabusersaremaleswhohaveafamilysoif
thesepeopledie,therewillbeorphansandwomenhencenomeansofsurvival.
6.Low productivitydueto absenteeism bytheabuserin working placeswhich then
decreasesdevelopment.
Waysofavoidingtheeffectsofdrugandsubstanceabuse
1.Followingprescriptionsbyusingdrugsfortheirintendedpurpose.
2.Avoidingbadinfluencesofpeers.
3.Avoidingplaceswherepeoplewillbedrinkingandusingdrugs.
Waysofcurbingdrugandsubstanceabuse
1.Civiceducationandliteracyprogrammeswhichwillhelppeopletoknowtheeffectsof
drugandsubstanceabusesotheywillstayoffdrugs.
2.Beingengagedinproductiveworkoroccupationwhichmakespeopletobebusymostof
thetimeandstayoffdrugs.
3.Counsellingondrugandsubstanceabusetohelpabuserstosolveproblemsthatmake
themtoabusedrugsandsubstances.
4.Family help and interventions by consulting professionals who give the families
knowledgeofhelpingtheaddictoralcoholicorabuser.Inaddition,thefamilyshouldgive
supportwhentheabuserhasaskedforhelp.
5.Medicationbyphysicianstomakepeoplestayoffdrugsandsubstancese.g.Naltrexone
orusingtraditionaldrugs.
TOPIC11:SOCIALSERVICESAND
DEVELOPMENT
Socialservicesinstitutionsarethosethatprovideservicessuchaseducationandhealth.
Provisionandcareofsocialservices
1.EducationtherearehighlevelsofadultilliteracyratesamongfemalesinmostAfrican
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countriessuchasMalawi.Countriesneedtofindwaysofreachingmorewomenwith
educationandalsoimprovethepercentageofstudentsenrollingatsecondaryschool
level.
2.HealthservicesprovisionofhealthservicesispoorinmostAfricancountriesdueto
shortageofphysicianshencepeopledonotaccessqualitymedicalcare.
3.Waterandsanitaryservicessafewaterandsanitationservicesishighinurbanareas
thaninruralareas.
4.Electricity,transport,communication,informationandtechnologicalservices many
developingcountriesfaceproblemsintheprovisionoftheseservices.
5.Housingmanypeopleindevelopingcountriesresidinginruralandhighdensityurban
areasliveinhousesnotfitforhumansettlement.Therearealotofshantyhousesthat
leak.Centralandlocalgovernments,NGOsandagenciesareworkinghardtoimprove
housingconditionsinmanydevelopingcountries.HabitatforHumanityInternationalis
oneoftheorganizationsthatareworkinghardtowardshelpingpeoplehaveaccessto
decenthouses.
Contributionsofsocialservicestodevelopment
1.Educationhelpsintheprovisionofsemi-skilledandskilledlabourforce.Inaddition,
educatedpeopleprovideabetterstandardoflivingfortheirfamilies.
2.Healthservices,safewaterandgoodsanitationmakepeopletobehealthywhocontribute
tothedevelopmentoftheirsocieties.
3.Peaceandstabilityattractbothdomesticandforeigninvestorsbecausetheyareassured
ofsecurity.
4.Adequatetransportation,communicationandelectricityleadtothesmoothrunningof
businesseswhichdevelopcountriesandprovideemploymenttopeople.
Impactofpopulationgrowthonsocialservices
1.Provisionofeducationtoanincreasedpopulationwillbetooexpensiveandnotpossible
duetoinadequateresources.
2.Pressureonhealthservicesbecausemorepeoplewillneedmedicalattention,accessto
safewaterandsanitation.
3.Strainontheabilitytomaintainpeaceandsecuritysincelawenforcersfinditdifficult.
4.Shortageofhousing,transportandcommunication.
Reasonsformisuseofsocialservices
1.Povertywhichcausespeopletobeinvolvedintheft.
2.LackoffinancialresourcesformaintenanceespeciallyinpoorAfricancountries.
3.Negativeattitudessincepeopledonothaveasenseofownershipofsocialservicesby
believingthattheyareownedbythegovernment.
4.Ignoranceandlackofappreciationbecausepeopledonotunderstandtheimportanceof
socialservices.
5.Politicalinfluencemakespeopletodestroystructuresbuiltbythepreviousregimeand
believetheexistinggovernmentshallprovideitsownsocialserviceinstitutions.
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Wiseuseofsocialservices
1.Queuinginanorderlyfashionforservices.
2.Receivingonlyenoughoftheservicebyobtainingresourcessuitabletoanindividual.
3.Respectingoneanother.
4.Protectinginfrastructurebymaintainingandrespectingthem.
5.Guardingagainsttheftandvandalism.
6.Civiceducationabouttheimportanceandsocialservices.
Criticalissuesrelatingtotheprovisionofsocialservices
1.Availabilityofsocialserviceswhichmeanssocialdevelopmentcannottakeplacewithout
theavailabilityofsocialservices.
2.Typesofsocialserviceswhichmeansthereisaneedofvarioussocialservicestoachieve
socialdevelopment.
3.Qualityofsocialserviceswhichmeanstheserviceshouldhaveacapacitytosatisfythe
needsofaparticulargroupofusers.Thesocialserviceshouldbeoftherightkindandbe
suitableforusebythoseforwhomitisintended.
4.Accessibilitywhichmeanssocialservicesshouldbelocatedwheretheycanbeeasily
reachedinbothruralandurbanareas.Inaddition,theiraccessibilityshouldnotbe
affectedbyorganizational,culturalandeconomicproblems.
5.Affordabilitythuspeopleshouldbeabletopayfortheservices.
6.Careforsocialservicesbythepeoplesothattheycontinueprovidingqualityservices.
Effectsofissuesrelatingtotheprovisionofsocialservicesondevelopment
Ifsocialservicesareadequateandavailabletoallpeople,thereisdevelopment.For
instance,peoplewhoareeducatedandhealthycontributetodevelopment.
However,ifthesocialservicesareonlyavailabletopeopleincertainareasonlyortothe
welltodo,peopleindeprivedareaswillfeeljealousyandengageinnegativeissuesto
development.
Renownedpeopleinsocialservices
1.HenryDunant-HeisaSwisswhowasbornon8
th
May,1828whoseidealedtothe
formationofRedCross.HecameupwiththeideaofformingRedCrosswhenhecame
uponabloodybattleinSolferino,ItalywheretheFrenchandItaliantroopswerefighting
Austriansoldiers.Duringthiswar,40,000soldierswereeitherkilledorwounded.Whenhe
wenthome,headvocatedforaformationofreliefsocietiestohelppeoplewounded
duringwars.HeteamedupwithsomeSwisscitizensandformedtheInternational
CommitteefortheReliefoftheWoundedin1863whichlaterchangedtoInternational
CommitteeoftheRedCross.
ItssymbolisaredcrossonawhitebackgroundwhichistheoppositeoftheSwissflag
(hasawhitecrossonaredbackground)
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2.JairosJiriheisagenerousmanfrom Zimbabwewhowaspitifulofsomedisabled
peopleinthestreets.HefundedtheJairosJiriAssociationforRehabilitationofthe
DisabledandtheBlindwhichstarteditsworkin195i.Theassociationbrought20disabled
people(theblindandcrippled)fortraininginvarioustrades.Today,itisthelargest
nationalrehabilitationagencywithschools,trainingcentres,craftcentresandacentrefor
olderpeoplewithdisabilities.Itisestimatedthat10,000disabledpeoplebenefitfrom this
organizationeveryyear.
3.MotherTheresa(Teresa)Shewasbornin1910fromAlbanianparentsanddiedin1997.
ShewasaRomanCatholicnunwhodevotedherlifetocareforthepoorestinIndiaand
thisearnedheranameSaintoftheGutters.ShefoundedtheMissionariesCharityin
CalcuttaorSistersofCharity.ShewaslivingwiththesickandthehomelessinCalcutta.
Theirachievementsinclude:
Thesistersbroughtmanypeoplewhoweresickanddyingtoaspecialhomewhere
theywerelookedaftertodiewithdignity.
Theylookedaftermanybabiesandlittlechildrenwhowereorphansorabandoned
bypoorparents.Thereare40suchhomesinIndia.
TheyestablishedShantiNagar,acityofpeacewheretheleperscouldlookafter
themselves.
TheyestablishedahouseinRomeforalcoholics,drugaddictsandthehomeless.
Theyoperatedsoupkitchensforthehomelessinsomebiggestcitiesintheworld,
helpedthosewithAIDSandsupportedprisoners.
4.JimmyCarterhewasthepresidentofUSAfrom1977to1981whoadvocatedforsocial
justiceandbasichumanrightswithhiswifeRosalynn.Theirworkincluded:
a.PersuadedleadersofEgyptandIsraeltosignapeacetreaty
b.Established HabitatforHumanity International,a non-profitmaking Christian
organizationthateliminatessubstandardhousing.Thisbeganin1984whenit
renovatedasixstoreybuildingwith19familiesinNew York.ItworksinUSA,
Canadaand79othercountriesincludingMalawiandhasbuilt30000houses
aroundtheworld.
c.TheyleadaBuildingBlitzeachyearinwhichvolunteersbuildhousesforaperiod
of2to3weeks.
5.FlorenceNightingaleshewasbornon12
th
May,1820inItalyanddiedin1910.Sheis
knownuniversallyasthefounderofmodernnursing.Herworkinclude:
a.InMarch,1854,shehelpedwoundedBritishsoldiersduringtheCrimeanwarin
Turkeywith38 nurses.Theyimproved sanitation and reduced deathrateof
patients.
b.Afterthewar,shebecamethepublichealthadvisortoallcountriesintheworld.
c.Sheestablishedanursingschoolwithmoneydonatedbyherformerpatientsand
charity.
6.GeorgeClaverhehelpedtoform theHumanRightsForum fortheDisabledandOther
Disadvantaged in 1997 withan aim ofhelping disabled peoplein Malawi.On the
InternationalDayforthePeoplewithDisabilitiesin1998,heaskedthepresidentofMalawi
tolookintodifficultiesfacedbythedisabled.HealsotaughtMPsnottousetermslike
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crippledandhandicappedanddraftingofanationalpolicytogivedisabledpeopleequal
accesstosocialservices.
7.BrotherHortensiusMeeuws hewasateacheratStPatricksSecondarySchoolin
Malawiwho helped fortheestablishmentofa schoolforthedeafatMaryView,
Chiradzuluwhichstartedwith5students.Healsoledtotheestablishmentofother
schoolsforthedeafatMua,DedzaandEmbangweni,MzimbaandMountainView,Thyolo.
TOPIC12:GLOBALVILLAGE
Globalissuesandchallengesinthe21
st
Century
1.Economicglobalization theincreasing integration ofeconomiesaround the world
throughtradeandfinancialflowsaswellasthroughmovementofpeopleandknowledge
acrossinternationalborders.Theprocessofeconomicglobalizationhasbeenaffectedby
threefactorsnamely:
a.Improvementsintechnologyoftransportationandcommunicationwhichhasledto
the reduced costs oftransporting goods and services and otherfactors of
production as wellas communicating economically usefulknowledge and
technology.
b.Individuals and societies havefavoured taking advantage ofthebenefitsof
economicintegrationwhichhasbroughtfastereconomicgrowth.
c.Publicpoliciesofmostgovernmentshavesignificantlyinfluencedthecharacter
andpaceofeconomicintegratione.g.tradeliberalizationwhichattractforeign
investors.
2.EpidemicssuchasHIV/AIDS,theEbolavirusandMeningitis:
a.ItisestimatedthatHIV/AIDShadaffected34.3millionpeopleatthebeginningof
theyear2000andhadalreadykilled18.8millionpeopleworldwide.
b.Itisestimatedthatthereare1.2millioncasesofmeningitisworldwideeveryyear.It
ishighlyfatalcharacterizedbyintenseheadacheandstiffneck.Itistransmitted
throughdirectcontactwithaninfectedperson.
c.TheEbolaviruscausesseverehemorrhagicfeverinhumans(severebleedingboth
internallyandexternally).Mostpatientsdiewithinthefirst8-9daysofinfectionand
itistransmittedthroughdirectcontactwithaninfectedperson.
3.Terrorismmeansunlawfulpracticeusingviolentandintimidatingmethodsagainstpeople
orpropertytointimidateorcoerceagovernment,thecivilianpopulationoranypartfor
politicalandsocialobjectives.Therearemanyterroristgroupsintheworldnamely:
a. EuskaditoAskatasuna(ETA)itisbasedinSpainandfightforindependenceof
BasquepeoplewholiveinNorthWestSpain.Itcarriesoutactsofviolenceagainst
theSpanishgovernmente.g.assassinations,bombingsandkidnappings.
b.Hamasisagroupwhichwasbornin1987inGazastripandcarriesoutattacks
mostly againstIsraelis because ofoccupying Hamas considered to be for
Palestinians.
c.HizbollaoraPartyofGodisaLebaneseShiitegroupcreatedin1983tocreatean
independentIslamicLebanonandtheousterofanythingrelatedtothegodless
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West.ItdoesactivitiesthatareantiUSandIsraelandtargetsIsraelciviliansand
militarypersonnel.Itusessuicidebomberswhichreferstopeoplewillingto
commitsuicideforthesakeofkillingmanyotherpeoplewhenthebombexplodes.
4.Povertyisestimatedtobeexperiencedbyover1billionpeople.Thesearepeoplewholive
onlessthan1US dollarperday.Absolutepovertyisaconditioncharacterizedby
deprivationofbasicneedslikesafedrinkingwater,sanitation,health,shelter,education
andinformation.
5.Theproblem ofrefugeesisaglobalconcernbecauserefugeesareofeveryraceand
religionandfoundineverypartoftheworld.Itisestimatedthattherewere22.3million
refugeesintheyear2000.
6.Proliferationofweaponsofmassdestructionwhichareweaponsthatarecapableof
killingalotofpeopleatonetimee.g.
a.Nuclearweaponshaveanexplosionwhichresultsfrom theenergyreleasedby
reactionsinvolvingatomicnuclei.Thesekillmillionsofpeoplewithinminutesofa
nuclearbomb.Longterm effectsofradiationincludehighincidentsofcancer,
sterility,cataracts,blooddisordersandgeneticdamagetopresentandfuture
generations.
b.Biologicalandchemicalweaponsbiologicalusebiologicalagentswhichcontain
eitherlivingorganismsorthederivativesliketoxinswhichcausediseaseordeath.
Chemicalweaponsreleasetoxicgasesorliquidsthatattackthebodysnerves,
blood,skinorlungs.Theymayprovidesurfaceeffectsliketears,vomitingand
blisters.
c.Anti-personnellandminestheseareexplosiveweaponsdesignedtokillorinjure
anyonethatcomesintocontactwiththem.Theyareoftenreferredtoasweapons
ofmassdestructioninslowmotionbecausetheyareindiscriminateweaponsthat
keeponkillinglongafterhostilitieshaveendedandremainforyearsoreven
decades.
7.Environmentalproblemsaffecttheentireworldandincludeairandwaterpollution,ozone
depletionanddeforestation.
Implicationsofglobalissuesandchallengesondevelopment
1.Globalizationofeconomieshashelped
a.Toincreaselevelsofinternationaltrade,communicationandtechnology
b.Countriestoopenupandgainaccesstotechnology
c.Easymovementofgoodsandpeople
Globalizationhasnegativelyaffectedtheworldbecause:
Ithasresultedintheproblem ofbraindraininmostdevelopingcountriessince
manyskilledpeoplemigratetodevelopedcountries.
Ithasincreasedthegapbetweentherichandthepooramongandwithincountries
2.Environmentalproblemshaveledtothegrowingthreattothephysicalhealth,economic
and socialwellbeing of people,land degradation,deforestation,desertification,
malnutritionandmigration.
3.Epidemicsposegreatthreatondevelopmentbecausetheyneedalotofmoneyfor
medicinesandkillalotofpeoplewithinashortperiodoftime.
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4.Terrorism negativelyaffectsdevelopmentsuchassecurityandpoliticalandeconomic
stability.Italsoaffectspeoplepsychologicallysuchthattheyliveinfear.Inaddition,
investorscannotdobusinessinplacesexperiencingterrorism.
5.Povertyleadstoloweconomicdevelopmentsincethepoorcannotcontributemuchto
economicdevelopment.Itisalsoassociatedwithhighincidentsofdiseaseshence
puttingastrainonhealthservices.
6.Problem ofrefugeesexertsalotofpressureondifferentresourceslikesocialservices
andnaturalresources.
7.Weaponsofmassdestructionkillandinjurealotofpeopletherebyexertingpressureon
healthservices.
Factorsthatcontributetoworldcooperation
1.EstablishmentofinternationalorganizationsliketheUnitedNationsmakesmember
countriestocooperateindealingwithsomeglobalissuesandchallenges.
2.Economicinterdependenceintheareaoftrademakescountriestocooperateintrading
systems.ExamplesoftradeorganizationsincludeCommonMarketforEasternand
SouthernStates(COMESA),WorldTradeOrganization(WTO)andEconomicCommunity
ofWesternAfricanStates(ECOWAS).
3.Ratification ofinternationalprotocols where each memberstate is supposed to
implementitandasaresultcooperateondifferentissuesintheprotocollikethe
ConventionontheRightsofaChild(CRC).
4.Sharingcommonpoliticalideologiessuchasmultipartyordemocracybringscooperation
amongcountriesthatpractiseit.CubaandChinacooperatebecausetheybothpractise
communism orsocialism (thegovernmentcontrolsitscountryseconomicdevelopment
throughstateownershipandthatallpeopleareequalandwealthshouldbedivided
equally).Othercountriespractisecapitalism (asystem inwhichbusinessesareowned
andrunbyindividualsandnotthegovernment).
Prominentpersonalitiesthathavecontributedtoworldcooperation
1.MartinLutherKingJuniorhewasbornin1929andadvocatedforracialequalityinUSA
sincemanyblackswerefacingdiscrimination.Hiscivilrightsmovementreachedclimax
between1960and1965whenalegislationorlawwaspassedtoendracialsegregationin
publicfacilitiesandexpandvotingrights.HewasawardedaNobelPeacePrizein1964.
Hewasassassinatedin1968andisrememberedforhisfightforjusticeandpeaceforall
people.
2.DrHastingsKamuzuBandahewasborninKasungu,Malawiin1906anddiedon27
th
November,1997.Duringhisruleasapresidentheadvocatedforcontactanddialogue
whichmeansdisputesshouldberesolvedthroughdiscussion,dialogue,negotiationand
arbitration.
3.DesmondTutu hewasbornon7
th
October,1931inSouthAfricaandgrew upin
apartheidSouthAfrica.HebecamethefirstblackAnglicanDeanofJohannesburg.He
spentmuchofhistimefightingforjusticeandracialharmonyinSouthAfricaandthe
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wholeworld.HewaschosenasaleaderofSouthAfricasTruthandReconciliation
CommissionbyNelsonMandelaattheendofapartheidtodealwithwhathappened
duringapartheid.Hecontinuestospeakoutagainstinjusticeandoppressionintheworld.
4.MahatmaGandhi–hewasbornin1869inWestIndiaandlatergotajobinSouthAfrica
whereheexperiencedracialdiscriminationsoheworkedtirelesslytoimproverightsof
Indians.He developed a passive (non-violent)resistance againstinjustice called
Satyagraha-atruthforce.Thismadehim tobejailedfrequently.Whenhewentbackto
Indiain1915,headvocatedfornon-violentprotestsagainsttheBritishwhoruledIndia
andreligioustolerancebetweenMuslimsandIndia.Heisrememberedasapersonwho
promotednon-violenceindifferencesbetweenracesornations.Hewasassassinatedin
January,1948whenhewaswalkinginacrowdedgardeninNewDelhitotakehisevening
prayers.Mahatmameansgreatsoul.
5.HenryKissingerhewasbornin1923inGermany.In1938,heimmigratedwithhis
familytoUSA fleeingNazityranny(cruelandunjustuseofpower).Hebelievedthat
Americashouldchangeitsinternationalrelationpolicyandbecomefriendswithmany
countriesintheworldwhenhewastheUSSecretaryofStateunderPresidentNixonand
Ford.HehelpedopeningupofrelationsbetweenUSAandChinaandtheMiddleEast.He
isrememberedasagreatAmericanStatesmanwhoworkedhardtopromotepeace
throughfriendlyrelationsbetweencountries.
6.NelsonMandela–hewasborninSouthAfricain1918andstartedpoliticsin1942when
hejoinedAfricanNationalCongress.Hewaschosenasvicepresidentin1952.He
opposedtheapartheidruleinSouthAfricasinceitdidnotrespectrightsofnon-white
races.Thisledtohisarrestin1964andstayedinjailfor27years.Hewasreleasedin
1990.Afterhisrelease,hebecametheANCpresidentwhostillopposedapartheidrule.In
1996,hebecamethefirstblackpresidentofmulti-racialSouthAfrica.Heworkedtirelessly
toreconciledifferentracesinSouthAfrica.Hesignedthecountrysnewconstitutionon
10
th
December,1996whichincludedendinghumanrightsviolations.Heisremembered
asthegreatesthumanrightsactivistandreconciliator.
7.KwameNkrumahhewasborninSouthWestofGhanain1909.HewenttoLondonin
1939 wherehewasactivein Pan African Movementthatdemanded freedom and
independenceofAfricancolonies.Hereturnedtohishomelandin1947andbecamethe
secretarygeneraloftheUnitedGoldCoastConventionwhichwasadvocatingfortheend
ofBritishruleinGhana.Hewasaninternationalsymboloffreedom becausehewasthe
firstblackleadertoshakeoffthechainsofcolonialrule.Hediedalonelymaninexile
afterbeingremovedasaleaderinacoup.
8.LeopoldSenghor–hewasapoetandthepresidentofSenegalbetween1960-1980.He
developedtheideaofnegritudethatisallblackpeople,whetherAfricanorAmerican
shouldbeproudoftheirheritage(culturalvaluesorachievements).
Internationalinterventionstopromoteandpreserveworldcooperation
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1.The United Nations itpromotes peace and security.Itachieves international
cooperation by solving internationalproblems of economy,social,culture and
humanitarian.
2.TheOrganizationofAfricanUnity(OAU)–itwasestablishedon25
th
May,1963inAddis
Ababa,Ethiopiaandthecharteroftheorganizationwassignedby32independentstates.
ItmainlyaimedataneedtofreeAfricafromcolonialism.Itsobjectivesinclude:
a.PromoteunityandsolidarityofAfricanstates.
b.CoordinateandintensifytheircooperationtoachieveabetterlifeforAfricans.
c.Defendsovereignty,territorialintegrityandindependence.
d.EradicateallformsofcolonialisminAfrica.
e.PromoteinternationalcooperationinregardtothecharteroftheUnitedNations
andtheUniversalDeclarationofHumanRights.
IthelditsfinalsummitinJuly,2001inLusaka,Zambiawhereitannouncedadecisionof
transformingOAUtoAfricanUnion(AU).AmaraEssyofIvoryCoastwaschosenasa
leaderduringitstransitionfromOAUtoAU.Currently,ithas53Africanstates.
3.TheAssociationofSouthEastAsianNations(ASEAN)itwasfoundedon8
th
August,
1967byfivecountriesnamely:Indonesia,Malaysia,ThePhilippines,Singaporeand
Thailand.ItismainlyaimedatbringingallcountriesinSEAsiatocooperateinsecuring
peace,stabilityanddevelopment.ItssecretariatisinJakarta,Indonesiaandthefollowing
arecurrentmembers:Indonesia,Malaysia,ThePhilippines,Singapore,Thailand,Brunei,
Vietnam,Myanma,LaosandCambodia.
Itsmainaimsinclude:
Promotespoliticalandsecuritycooperation.
Promotescooperationonissuessuchashumanresourcedevelopment,elimination
ofpoverty,diseasesandilliteracy,providingproductivejobsforlowincomegroups,
takingastrongactiontoendabuseandtrafficindrugs.Cooperationinthesefields
isknownasFunctionalbytheASEANleaders.
Importanceofworldcooperation
1.Promotespeacebecausewhenconflictarisesbetweencountries,theysolvethesewith
diplomacy.
2.Acceleratingdevelopmentbecausethereispeaceandthatsometradeorganizations
eliminatetradebarriersandtariffs.
3.Promotes harmony between people ofdifferentcultures,nationalities and racial
backgrounds.
4.Promotessocialjustice.
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SAMPLEESSAYQUESTIONS
2003NATIONALEXAMINATIONS
1.Explainthefactorsthatinfluencesocialandeconomicdevelopmentinacountry.(20
marks)
2.Discusstheimportanceofremovinggenderbiasesinthesociety.(20marks)
3.Describehowtheelectoralcommissionensuresthattheelectoralprocessisheldinafree
andfairatmosphere.(20marks)
2004NATIONALEXAMINATIONS
1.Discussthecommoncharacteristicsofdevelopingnations.(20marks)
2.ExplainthefactorsthatmayassisttopreventmarriagebreakdowninMalawi.(20marks)
3.Discussthepositiveeffectsofglobalizationoftheeconomyondevelopment.(20marks)
2005NATIONALEXAMINATIONS
1.Explaintheimpactofdrugandsubstanceabuseondevelopment.(20marks)
2.Describeanyfiveinstitutionsthatcanbeinstrumentalinpromotinggoodgovernancein
Malawi.(20marks)
3.Explaintheeffectsofrefugeeproblemintheworld.(20marks)
2006NATIONALEXAMINATIONS
1.Explainwithexamplesanysixeffectsofsocialinjusticeinsociety.(20marks)
2.Discussanysixfactorsthatcancontributetopopulationchangeinacountry.(20marks)
3.Explainwithexamplesanysixwaysinwhichrightsofspecialgroupscanbeviolated.(20
marks)
2007NATIONALEXAMINATIONS
1.Discussanysixfactorsthatcancontributetodiscriminationinacountry.(20marks)
2.Describeanysixrolesoffinancialinstitutionstothedevelopmentofacountry.(20marks)
3.DiscussanysixwaysthatMalawicanusetoachievegenderbalance.(20marks)
2008NATIONALEXAMINATIONS
1.Explainanysixcausesofsocialinjusticeinthesociety.(20marks)
2.Explainanysixwaysinwhichwarbetweentwoneighbouringcountriesmayaffect
developmentinthecountries.(20marks)
3.Explain anysixwaysinwhich counsellingforHIV/AIDS patientsandguardiansis
important.(20marks)
AjourneyofaThousandmilesbeginswithasinglestep.Getoriginalcopy0996564395/0881399843Page77
2009NATIONALEXAMINATIONS
1.Discussanysixfactorsthatcancontributetotechnologicaldevelopmentinacountry.(20
marks)
2.Explainanysixfactorsthatshouldbeconsideredwhenprovidingsocialservicestothe
community.(20marks)
3.Describeanysixrolesplayedbyinstitutionsofthecivilsocietyinacountry.(20marks)
2010NATIONALEXAMINATIONS
1.Explainanysixrolesplayedbythestate.(20marks)
2.DiscussanysixstrategiesthatareusedtopreservecultureinMalawi.(20marks)
3.Explainanysixwaysinwhichpromotionofsocialjusticeisimportantintheworld.(20
marks)
2011NATIONALEXAMINATIONS
1.Explainanysixproblemsfacedintheimplementationofconventionsfortheprotectionof
specialgroups.(20marks)
2.Describeanysixsocialandethicalvaluesthatcontributetointernationalcooperation.(20
marks)
3.Explainanysixfactorsthatcanassistintheeconomicdevelopmentofacountry.(20
marks)
2013NATIONALEXAMINATIONS
1.Discussanysixcasesofviolationsofhumanrightsforspecialgroups.(20marks)
2.Explain any six ways in which developing countries benefit from international
organizations.(20marks)
3.Discussanysixfactorsthatencouragemulticulturalisminacountry.(20marks)