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‘AjourneyofaThousandmilesbeginswithasinglestep.’Getoriginalcopy0996564395/0881399843Page2

TOPIC1:DEVELOPMENT

Developmentreferstoasustainedelevationofanentiresocietyandsocialsystem towardsa

betterormorehumanelife.

Objectives

1.Ithelpstoincreasetheavailabilityofbasiclifesustaininggoodse.g.food,shelter,health

andprotection.

2.Ithelpstoimprovequalityoflife.

3.Itraisesthelevelsoflivingbyprovidinghigherincome,morejobs,bettereducationand

greaterhelptohumanvalues.

4.Ithelpstoexpandtherangeofeconomicandsocialservicesavailabletopeopleand

countriesbyendingexternaldependence.

Aspectsofdevelopment

1.Political

2.Social

3.Economic

4.Technological

Politicaldevelopment

Itreferstochangingandimprovingthewayacountryisgoverned.

Indicators

1.Politicalawarenessandcitizenparticipationwhichmeanpeopleareinformedabout

politicaldevelopmentsintheircountryandhenceparticipateactivelythroughvotingin

elections,debatesandattendingcivicmeetings.

2.Politicaltolerancewhichmeanspeopleinpowershouldallowotherstosaytheirviews

andallowviewsfromracial,religiousandpoliticalgroups.

3.Abilitytochooseownleaderspeacefullyinanelection.

4.Effectivepoliticalinstitutionsbypromotingthewelfareofpeople,holdingparliamentary

sessionsfrequentlyandconsultingtheelectoratethroughmembersofparliament.

5.Transparencyandaccountabilitywherepeopleshouldbeawareofwhatishappeningand

decisionsmadeaswellasreasonsformakingdecisions.

6.Controlofabuseofpowerorauthorityforpersonalgainbystructuringmethodsthatlimit

powersofdifferentarmsofthegovernment.

7.Respectforandprotectionofhumanrightsofcitizens.

8. Theruleoflawshouldberespectedbyeveryoneregardlessoftheirstatus.

9.Multipartysystem ofgovernmenttoallow oppositionfrom otherpartiesthatcheck

activitiesoftherulingparty.

Positiveeffectsofpoliticaldevelopment

1.Increasedawarenessofpeopleinpoliticalaffairs.

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2.Peopleknowtheirrightsandrespectotherpeople’srights.

3.Peoplearetolerantofoneanother.

4.Increasedparticipationinlocaldevelopmentwork

5.Increasedparticipationinparliamentaryandlocalgovernmentelections.

MajorpoliticaldevelopmentsinMalawisince1963

1.February,1963-NyasalandattainedselfgovernanceandKamuzuBandabecamethefirst

PrimeMinister.

2.6

July,1964-NyasalandattainedindependenceandchangeditsnametoMalawi.

3.In1971-allotherpartieswerebannedexceptMCPandKamuzuBandawasmadelife

presidentofMalawiCongressParty.

4.8

March,1992-Catholicbishopscirculatedapastorallettercalled‘LivingourFaith’which

criticizedKamuzu’sgovernment.

5.6

April,1992-ChakufwaChihanaopenlychallengedKamuzuBandaandtheoneparty

ruleandadvocatedformultiparty.

6.June,1993-areferendum washeldonthereintroductionofmultipartysystem.The

majorityvotedformultipartysystemagainstonepartyrule.

7.17

May,1994-multipartygeneralelectionswereheldandBakiliMuluzibecamethestate

president.

8.1999-BakiliMuluziwasre-electedasthestatepresident.

9.2004-BinguwaMutharikawaselectedthestatepresidentofMalawiundertheUDFticket.

10.2009-BinguwaMutharikawasre-electedunderDPP.

Socialdevelopment

Itmeansthegeneralwellbeingofpeoplewithinasocialsystem.

Indicators

1.Infrastructuresuchasroads,schoolsandmarkets.

2.Infantmortalityratewhichisthenumberofbabieswhodiebeforetheyareoneyearoldof

every1000babiesborn.

3.Lifeexpectancywhichistheaveragenumberofyearsapersoncanexpecttolive.Itdoes

notmeanthateveryonelivestothisage,thatisotherswilllivelongerandsomewilldie

beforethisage.

4.Adultliteracylevelswhichisthepercentageofadults(peopleabove15years)whocan

readandwrite.

5.Schoolenrolmentswhichisthepercentageofpeopleattendingschool.

Localsocialdevelopmentinitiatives

Theseareprojectsinitiatedbythecommunitysuchasconstructionofclinicsandroads.

Positiveimpact

1.Peopleareequippedwithleadershipskills.

2.Peopleareequippedwithnegotiationskills.

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3.Lesspressureonexistingsocialservices.

4.Improvedstandardsofliving.

5.Cooperationofthepeopleintheareaorbuildastrongcivilsociety.

6.Buildconfidenceandasenseofempowerment.

Economicdevelopment

Itreferstoexpandingthecountry’swealthoreconomy.

Indicators

1.Educationalindicatorse.g.highadultliteracyrate,highschoolenrolment,lowschooldrop

outrate(percentageofpeoplewhodropoutofschoolbeforecompletingaparticular

cyclelikeprimaryorsecondary).

2.Healthindicatorse.g.percentageofpeoplewithaccesstosafewaterandsanitation

(protectedpitlatrinesandflushtoilets),lowinfantmortalityrate,lowmaternalmortality

rate(numberofwomenwhodieduringpregnancyorchildbirthexpressedper100,000

livebirths)andlifeexpectancy.

3.Lowcrimerate

4.Infrastructuree.g.presenceofschools,hospitals,financialinstitutionsandroads.

5.GrossDomesticProduct(GDP)andGrossNationalProduct(GNP)–GDPmeansthevalue

oftotaloutputproducedbyfactorsofproductioninacountryregardlessofnationalityor

whoownsthefactors.GNPmeansthetotaldomesticandforeignoutputbyresidentsofa

country.Therefore,ifthereisgrowthinGDPandGNP,economyisalsogrowing.

6.GNPpercapitawhichisGNPdividedbytotalpopulation.Ifacountrydoesnotproducea

lot,theincomeperpersonwillbelow.Wherethepopulationisbig,thetotalproductofa

countryhastobedividedamongalotofpeoplesoGNPpercapitawillbelow.

7.Anunemploymentlevelthatisifacountryhaseconomicpoliciesthatpromotecreationof

employmentopportunity,ithelpsinalleviationofpoverty.

Factorsthatcontributetoeconomicdevelopment

1.Marketliberalizationistheremovalofbarrierstotradee.g.tradepolicies.Thisbrings

morepeopleandcompaniesthatcontributetoeconomicprogress.

2.Privatizationistheprocessofchangingtheactivityfrom thepublicsectortotheprivate

sector.Thisencouragesprivateownershipofproductiveresourceshenceordinarypeople

ownwealththroughsharesinprivatecompanies.

3.Industrializationmeansexpansionofthecountry’scapacityforproducingsecondary

goodsandservices.Thiscreatesmoreemploymentopportunitiesforpeople.

4.Importsubstitutioniswhenthegovernmentattemptstoreplaceimportswithdomestically

producedgoodsandservices.Thisboostsindustrialization.

5.Urbanizationisthegrowthoftownsineconomyanddemography(population)brought

aboutbyindustrialization.Thisisbecausemanypeopleareneededtoworkinexpanding

industries.

6.Taxationlevelsthatarelowattractmorecompaniesandindividualstoinvestinacountry.

Inadditiontaxrevenuefrom privateindividualsandcorporationsisusedtofinancethe

governmentinstitutionshenceimprovingtheeconomy.

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7.Peaceandstabilityattractsmanyinvestorssincetheyareassuredofsecurity.

8.Availabilityofbothfinancialandnon-financialresourceshelpsinfundingprojectsaswell

asassistingindevelopment.

9.Managementofresourcesshouldbegoodtoachievesustainabledevelopment.

10.Freetradewhichisremovingbarrierstofreeflowofgoodsbyreducingimportandexport

dutiessothatpeoplehaveafreechoiceofgoodstheywanttopurchase.

Technologicaldevelopment

Itreferstosciencetoproductionoruseofscientificknowledgetomakethingse.g.machines

andmedicine.

Indicators

1.Telephone

2.Computer

3.Radio

4.Television

5.Cellphone

6.Moneycard

7.Aeroplanes

8.Cars

Factorsthatcontributetotechnologicaldevelopment

1.Free market economy which is increasing liberalization of trade especially in

communicationstechnology.Morebusinessisdoneontheinternet.

2.Developingphysicaland localtechnologysupportinfrastructurethatisestablishing

institutionsandcompaniesthatworkonnewtechnologies.

3.Educationandtrainingreferstotheprovisionofscientificknowledgeandmethodsby

variouseducationalinstitutions.

4.Politicalwillmeansthegovernmentallowingvariousindustriestodobusinessand

introducingnewideas.

5.Reductionofimportandexporttaxes.

6.Raisingawarenesstothepublicabouttheimportanceoftechnologicaldevelopment.

Countriesthataretechnologicallyadvanced

U.S.A.,Japan,GreatBritain,Germany,France,Australia,Canada,SouthAfrica,RepublicofChina

andIndia.

Milestonesintechnologicaldevelopmentinthe20

Century

1.1901-Firstradiosignalwassentacross1700milesacrossoceanusingradiowaves.It

wassentbyMorsecode(asystemofdotsanddasheswhichstoodforletters)

2.1903–HenryFordbrothershadtoflyinanaeroplaneforthefirsttime.

3.1913–HenryFordusinganassemblylineproducedcheapmotorcars.

4.1920–AradiostationinU.S.A.calledKDKAbroadcastthefirstradioprogrammeusing

Marconi’spreviouswork.

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5.1920s–CompaniesstartedproducinghomeappliancesusingHenryFord’smethodse.g.

vacuumcleaners,fridgesandwashingmachines.

6.1926–FirsttelevisionprogrammewasbroadcastbyBritishBroadcastingCorporation

(BBC)inUK.ThemaininventorwasJohnLogieBaird.

7.1945–Theworld’sfirstcomputerwasusedattheUniversityofPennsylvaniaintheU.S.A

whichwasverybigandhad6000manualswitches.

8.1945–FirstatomicbombwasmanufacturedinU.S.A.anddroppedinHiroshima,Japan.

Acheapandtinytransistorwasinventedtobeusedinradiosandlaterincomputers.This

reducedthesizeofcomputers.

9.1969–ApolloastronautslandedonthemoonusingrocketdevelopedinU.S.A.

10.Mid1970s– Micro processors(smalland cheapintegratedcircuitsto beusedin

thousandsofproducts)wereinvented.Thismadethepersonalcomputerrevolution

possible.

11.1981–Americansstartedspaceshuttlewithaseriesofsatellitesandspacecraftwere

propelledintospacebyrockets.Theywereusedtocarryoutresearchandimprove

systemsofsatellitecommunication.

12.1992– InventionoftheinternetbytheAmericanmilitary.Thissystem ofcomputer

networksbecameknownasWorldWideWeb(www).

Positiveimpactoftechnologicaldevelopment

1.Improvementin transportwhich make people traveleasier,access goods,find

employment,reacheducationalinstitutionsandsellgoodsandservices.

2.Improvedcommunicationsthroughtelephones,faxande-mail.

3.Accesstoentertainmentandinformationthroughradioandtelevision.

4.Lessenedworkpressureathomeduetodomesticapplianceslikecookers.

5.Expansionofbusinessthroughadvertisementandsellinggoodsontheinternet.

6.Reduceddependencyonmanuallabourandmassliteracy.

7.Improvementineducationsincepeoplecanaccessandlearndifferentissuesbyusing

computertechnology.

8.Improvementsinhealthcareinformofmoreeffectiveequipmentanddrugs.

9.Increasedagriculturalactivitiesandenvironmentalmanagemente.g.theintroductionof

hybridvarieties.

Negativeimpactoftechnologicaldevelopment

1.Moraldecaylikeviolenceandprostitutionduetopeople’sexposureespeciallytheyouth

totelevisionandinternet.

2.Unemploymentduetonewtechnologyforexampletheuseofrobotsortrafficlights.

3.Deathofpeopleduetotheinventionofnuclearandchemicalweapons.

4.Pollutioncausedbyburntfossilfuels,smokefromcarexhaustsandothermaterials.

5.Companiesthatdonotuseinformationtechnologycannotcompetewiththosethatuse

informationtechnology.

6.Somenew technologicaldevelopmentsraiseethicalquestionssuchastheinnovations

(newideas)thatchangethenatureofplants.

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Developingnations

TheWorldBankclassifiesthecountriesoftheworldintothreemaingroupsbasedonGNPper

capitawhichisusuallystatedinUScurrency(USDollars).Thecountriesfallinthefollowing

groups:

1.Highincome,highdevelopmentcountries– countriesofNorthAmericaandEurope,

Australia,Newzealand,Japan,theRepublicofKorea,SingaporeandKuwaitinAsia,

Barbados,TrinidadandBahamasintheCaribbean,UruguayandVenezuelainSouth

America.

2.Medium income,medium developmentcountries– countriesintheCaribbean,South

America,thePacificregion,theMiddleEastandAsia,SouthAfricaandBotswana.

3.Low income,low developmentcountries–AsianandPacificnationsandanumberof

AfricancountriesincludingMalawi.

Itshouldbenotedthatthereisalwaysmovementonthisladderofdevelopmentwhichmeans

levelsofdevelopmentarealwayschanging.

Characteristicsofdevelopingnations

1.Lowlevelsofincome–manypeoplehaveinadequateincomefortheirsurvivalsothis

causeshighinfantmortalityrateandmaternalmortalityrate,illiteracyandmalnutrition

anddiseases.

2.Poorhealthsinceveryfewpeoplehasaccesstogoodhealthfacilities,sanitationandsafe

water.Thisisbecausethesesocialservicesarescarce.

3.Loweducationallevelsandstandardsbecauseoflackofteachingandlearningresources

like textbooks,qualified teachers and good quality classrooms.This causes high

percentageofschooldropoutsandmanyilliteratepeople.

4.Low levelsofproductivityduetolackofcapitalandadvancedtechnology,poorhealth

statusandnutritioninchildhoodwhichaffectmentalandphysicalgrowthonanindividual.

5.Highpopulationgrowthratesduetoculturalexpectationswhichencouragepeopleto

havemanychildren.Forexample,4.1childrenwhiledevelopedcountrieshaveanaverage

of1.9.Furthermore,highpopulationgrowthisduetolow mortalityratescausedby

improvedhealthstatus.

6.Highlevelsofunemploymentbecauseofhighbirthratesandhighpopulationgrowth

rateswhichmeansthatthesupplyoflabourexpandsmorerapidlythantherateofjob

opportunities.

7.Dependenceinagricultureandprimaryproductssincemanypeopleliveinruralareasand

hencetheyareengagedinagriculturalproduction.However,agriculturalproductionis

poorduetolandscarcityandlowleveloftechnology.Inaddition,dependenceonprimary

productsisbadbecausewhentheirpricesfall,peoplecannotgetenoughforeign

exchange.

8.Dependenceonforeignaidtohelpfundtheirdevelopmentprogrammes.Theaidisinform

ofgrantsandloans.

9.Highlevelsofdebtsincemanydevelopingcountriestookloansfromcommercialbanksin

theindustrializedworldin1970s–1980swhichhadhighinterestrates.Thisledtoquick

accumulationofdebtsandcurrentlythedifferentcountriesarestillgettingloansfrom

otherorganizationsliketheWorldBank.

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10.Instabilityorlackofpeaceinform ofwar,ethnicrivalry,lackofgoodgovernanceand

violencecausedbycompetitionoverscarceresourcesandpower.

11.Weakeconomysincemanydevelopingnationsdependonagriculturalproductsthatare

affectedbyclimaticconditionsandworlddemandthatfluctuatealot.

DevelopmentchallengesfacingMalawi

1.Healthsector

a.Findingwaysofreducinginfantmortalityrate,maternalmortalityrateandtotal

fertilityrate.

b.Givingpeopleaccesstosafewaterandsanitation.

c.HIV/AIDS

d.Lackofenoughhealthpersonnelandfacilitiestosupporteveryoneinthecountry.

Thechallengesabovecanbesolvedthroughtheprovisionof:

a.Curativetreatmentwhichinvolvesnursesanddoctorsprovidinghealthservicesin

hospitals.

b.Preventivehealthworkwhichinvolveshealtheducationandprovisionofprimary

healthcareservicesclosetopeople’shomes.

2.Educationsector

a.Highadultilliteracyrate.

b.Highschooldropoutratesespeciallyatprimarylevel.

c.Lackofqualifiedteachers.

d.Lackofteachingfacilitiese.g.classroomsandtextbooks.

e.Migrationofqualifiedpeopletoothercountries.

3.Agriculturalsector

a.Shortageoflandsuitableforcultivation.

b.Findingwaysofincreasingproductivityinthesmallholdersector.

c.Foodinsecurity.

d.Pressureonlandresourceswhichleadtosoilerosionanddegradation.

4.Environmentalmanagement

a.Finding waysofenhancing the use ofmodern soiland waterconservation

technology.

b.Ensuringsustainableuseofforestryresources.

5.Tradeandcommerce

a.Findingwaysofpromotingmicro,smallandmedium scalebusinessesbyusing

SADCandCOMESA.

b.Highunemploymentlevels.

c.Findingwaysofincreasingexportofagriculturalcommoditiesandinvestinginthe

manufacturingsector.

DevelopmentachievementsinMalawi

1.100%enrolmentatprimaryschoollevelwhichincludeequalnumbersofboysandgirls.

2.Lowinfantmortalityrateandlowfertility.

3.Manywomenhaveaccesstomoderncontraceptives.

4.Widespreadknowledgeonimprovedagriculturaltechniques.

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Donors

Theseareinstitutionsthatgivefinancialandnon-financialaidinformofgrantsorloans.

Kindsofdonors

1.Countries givingbilateralaid-bilateralaidisatwosidedaidoraidfrom onecountryto

another.ExamplesincludeCanada,Denmark,theUnited StatesofAmerica,Britain,

Germany,Japan,Netherlands,Kuwait,SaudiArabia,LibyaandRepublicofChina.

2.Organizationsthatgivemultilateralaid– thesegiveaiddirectlytoagovernmentor

supportspecific projects and getfunding from many countries e.g.World Health

Organization, Food and Agricultural Organization, United Nations Development

ProgrammeandUnitedNationsChildrenFund.

3.Non-governmentalorganizations–Thesearenotfundedbygovernmentswhichmaybe

localorforeign.Theygiveaiddirectlytogroupsorindividualsworkingonprojectsatthe

grassrootlevelinlocalcommunities.ExamplesincludeSavetheChildrenFund,World

VisionInternational,PlanInternationalandtheCanadianPhysiciansforAidandRelief.

Rolesofdonorsineconomicdevelopment

1.Positive

a.Provide funding fordevelopmentinitiatives such as supplementary national

budgetsandbalanceofpayments(differencebetweentheamountofmoneya

countrypaystoforeigncountriesandtheamountitreceivesfromthem).

b.Providetechnicalassistancetodevelopingnationsinform ofhighlevelmanpower

transferstomakesurethatfundsareusedefficiently.

c.Humanresourcedevelopmentthroughtheprovisionofscholarshipstohelppeople

fromdevelopingcountriestostudyindevelopedanddevelopingcountries.

d.Promotegoodgovernancebyputtingsomeconditionsforgettingdevelopmentaid

suchastransparencyandaccountability.

e.Provisionofsocialservicesinstitutionssuchasschools,hospitalsandboreholes.

2.Negative

a.Encouragesdependencysyndrome,thatispeoplewhoreceivedonationdonot

workhardsincetheyalwaysexpecttogethandouts.

b.Colonialism sincemostdonorsexpectthecountryreceivingaidtomeetcertain

conditionssuchasintroductionofmultipartysystem ofgovernmentorhow aid

shouldbedistributed.

c.Problemsofmanagementandcoordinationsincemanydonorsoverlapintheir

worksotheydonoteasilycollaborateorworktogetherwhenimplementingtheir

projects.

d.Donorsmaysometimesbring inappropriatedevelopmentordevelopmentnot

suitabletothelocalpeople.

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MajordonorstoMalawi

Denmark,Norway,theUnitedKingdom,Japan,Germany,theUnitedStatesofAmerica,Republic

ofChinaandCanada.

HeadquartersofsomeMalawiandonors

WorldBank–Washington,USA;TheEuropeanUnion-Brussels,Belgium;InternationalMonetary

Fund–Washington,USA;AfricanDevelopmentBank–Abidjan,IvoryCoast.

Sustainabledevelopment

Itreferstothedevelopmentthatmeetstheneedofthepresentwithoutcompromisingtheability

ofthefuturegenerationstomeettheirownneeds.

Developmentthatinvolvesthecarefuluseofresourceswithoutdamagingtheenvironment.

Importanceofsustainabledevelopment

1.Improvesthequalityoflife.

2.Ensuresefficientuseofresources.

3.Reduceswastesandpollutionthroughrecycling.

4.Promotestourismsinceplacesarekeptnaturalandbeautiful.

5.Helpstopreventnaturaldisasterssincetheenvironmentisconserved.

6.Helpsinenergyconservation.

7.Helpsinculturalpreservation.

8.Leadstoeconomicgrowth.

Conditionsfavourabletosustainabledevelopment

1.Communityparticipationwherethecommunityinitiatestheprojectandbecomeactively

involvedsothatitbecomessuccessfulbecausetheybestknow howtheirlivescanbe

improved.

2.Genderequalitywherebothsexesmustbeactivelyinvolvedandnotonesexonly.

3.Policyandlegislativemeasuresinwhichcountriesshouldputinplacelawsthatpromote

sustainabledevelopmente.g.empoweringcommunitiesinpropermanagementofnatural

resources.

4.Education and awareness through environmentaleducation and telling people the

importanceofsustainabledevelopmentandproblemsofthemisuseofresources.In

addition,trainingpeoplehowtomaintainlocallyavailableprojectse.g.borehole.

5.Interdependenceormutualassistanceandcooperationatalllevelsbyacknowledgingour

commoninterestintheenvironment.

6.Responsibility and accountability by becoming responsible forthe environmental

managementandsayingtheiractionsopenly.

7.Availabilityoffinancialandnon-financialresourceswhichshouldbecheapandlocally

available.

8.Peaceandsecuritytopromotesustainabledevelopment.

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9.Appropriatetechnologywhichshoulduselocallyavailableresourcesandrenewable

energy.

10.Availabilityofmarketssothattheproject’sproductsaresoldeasily.Thepricesshouldnot

betooloworhigh.

Casestudiesonsustainabledevelopment

1.CommunityforestgroupsinMalawi

Thegovernmentinvolveslocalpeopleinthemanagementofforeststoencourageproper

useoftheforests.Theforestrydepartmentorganizestechnicaland administrative

supporttothecommunitywhilethecommunityforestgroupsprotectforestsfrom

encroachment,fire,grazingandtheft.

2.RainforestsofGuyana

ThisisIwokramaInternationalRainForestProgrammeformedbytheagreementofthe

CommonwealthandthegovernmentofGuyanawhereapartofitisusedasaSustainable

Utilization Area.Thereisa businessplan which findsoutthepotentialfortimber

production,tourismandmedicinalplants.

3.CampfireinZimbabweorCommunalAreasManagementProgrammeforIndigenous

Resources

Itwasinitiatedin1989toallowlocalcommunitiestohavecontrolovermanagementof

resources.Villagerscollectivelyuselocalwildlifeonasustainablebasis.Thisisdoneby

settinguppricesofhuntingpermitsperyearincommunity.Thesecommunitiessell

permitstosafarioperatorstodophotographicandhuntingexpeditionsoncommunity

lands.

Peopleandfinances

Financesmeanmoneyresources.

Moneyusedtosupportanactivityoraproject.

Commonfinancialinstitutions

1.Banks– abankisaninstitutionwhichcollectsfundsfrom thegeneralpublicand

organizationsandsafeguardsitaswellasprovidingmoneytothetrueownerswhen

required.

Banksaregroupedinto:

a.CentralBankorReserveBank–Itisnon-politicalandactsasafinancialwingof

thegovernment.Ithasthefollowingfunctions;

i.Lookingafterthegovernment’smoneyby

 Raisingmoneytolendtothegovernment

 Looking aftermoney received from taxation,othersources and

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managesgovernmentpayments.

ii.Storesthenation’sreservesofforeigncurrencyandgoldandestablishes

rulesaboutforeignexchange(forex)

iii.Supervisesthebankingsysteminthecountrytoensurefinancialstabilitye.g.

insistingthateachbankshouldholdacertainreservewhichcannotbelent

outtocustomers.

iv.Offersspecialistadvicetothegovernmentonmanagementoffinances.

v.Issuesbanknotesandcoins.

b.Commercialbanks–thesearebusinessconcernsandruntomakeprofitse.g.

NationalBankandStandardBank.Theyhavethefollowingfunctions:

i.Foreignexchangereserves.

ii.Financialstabilitymakers.

iii.Custodiansofwillsandjewelry

iv.Arrangeforexforcustomersabouttotravelabroadaswellasimportersand

exporters.

v.Lendingoutmoney.

vi.Keepingsurplusmoneyforpeople.

vii.Helpinvestorstotransfertheirmoneyintoanotheraccount.

viii.Allowscustomerstousechequestopaybills.

2.TheStockExchange

Itisahighlyorganizedfinancialmarketwherebonds,stocksandsharescanbeboughtor

solde.g.TheMalawiStockExchange.Itsfunctionistoexchangeinvestmentsina

quickest,cheapestandfairestmanner.

3.Creditunions

Acreditunionisanon-profitcooperativeorassociationrunbyitsmemberse.g.Savings

andCreditCooperative(SACCO).Theyaremainlyaimedathelpingmemberstosave

moneyandaccessloans.

Somefundamentalprinciplesofcreditunionsinclude:

a.Non discriminatorywhich meanspeopleshould join regardlessofsex,race,

religionortribe.

b.Democraticbyallowingfreeparticipationofmembers.

c.Educatemembersinvariousskillslikebookkeeping,planningandbudgeting.

d.Encouragecooperationandsocialresponsibilityoftheirmembers.

4.Buildingsocieties

Organizationsthatlendmoneytopeoplewhowanttopurchaserealestateslikeproperty,

buildingsandland.Theseloansarecalledmortgageswhichareverylargeandmaybe

repaidafteralongperiodoftimee.g.over200r30years.

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5.Insurancecompanies

Theseprovidemoneytocompensateanydamageorlossbecauseofrunningariskthat

wasinsured againste.g.OldMutualand NationalInsuranceCompany.Peopleand

companiespaypremium (anamountpaidyearlyfortheinsurancepolicy)whichmakesa

pool(moneyreserve).Compensationisthereforepaidusingthepool.

6.Developmentbanks

Thesearesubsidiarycompanies(thoseownedbyotherlargecompanies)setupby

commercialbankstofocusondevelopmente.g.IndeFund.Theyhelpindustriesto

expandandmodernize.

Problemsfacedbypeoplewhendealingwithfinancialinstitutions

1.Fewfinancialinstitutionswhichmakesfewpeopletohaveaccesstofinancialservices

sincemostofthem arelocatedinurbanareassopeoplefrom ruralareashavetotravel

longdistancestoaccessthem.

2.Collateralorsecurityinform ofliquid(money)orfixed(machinery)isdifficultbecause

mostofthemneedfinancing.

3.Interestratesareveryhighespeciallyindevelopingcountrieswhichresultintofailureto

accessandserviceloans.

4.Fluctuationsinthesupplyofmoney.

ContributionsoffinancialinstitutionstoMalawi’sdevelopment

1.Provideloanstothegovernmentandparastatals.

2.Providenationalmarketswhichhelppeopletosaveandinvestthroughstockmarketor

exchange.

3.Highlevelofbusinessactivitysincepeoplewillalsorunriskybusinessduetothe

presenceofinsurancecompanies.

4.Provideemploymenttopeoplewhoarewellpaidsotheirlivingstandardsimprove.

5.Empowermentofpeople especially women through loans provided to startsmall

businesses.

6.Encourageselfrelianceandresponsibilitywiththegroupownedassociationslikecredit

unions.

Marketforcesandeconomies

Aneconomyisanyareainwhichpeoplemakeorproducegoodsandservicessuchasasmall

area(avillage),wholecountryorregionorthewholeworld(theglobaleconomy).

Ineacheconomypeopleareinvolvedinproductionandconsumption.

 Productionisanyactivitywhichproducesgoodsandservices.Ithasthefollowingfactors:

o Thelandanditsproductsi.e.thelandiswhererawmaterialsoriginatefrom such

asagriculturalproductsandminerals.

o Labouri.e.workersorpeoplewhochangethesematerialsintogoods.

o Capitalreferstomoneyandmachineryortoolsusedtoproducegoods.

 Consumptionreferstogoodsandservicesbeingused(goodsandservicesbeingbought

andconsumedorused).

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Typesofeconomies

1.Amarketwherebuyersandsellerscomeincontactphysicallywherestallholderssell

directlytoconsumersorindirectlythroughintermediariesasinastockexchange.

2.Afreemarketeconomyiswherepeoplechoosewhattobuyandthereislittlegovernment

interference.Companiesproducegoodsandservicesthatpeoplewantandthiseconomy

givesaconsumeravarietyofgoodsandservicestochoosefrome.g.inUSA.

3.Acentralgovernmenteconomyiscalledbythegovernmentsopeoplehavelittlechoiceof

whattogrowormanufacturee.g.thepreviousSovietUnionandEasternEuropedueto

communism.

4.Amixedeconomyispartlycontrolledbythegovernmentliketransportandpoweraswell

asbeinglefttofreeenterprisee.g.today’seconomies.

Demandandsupply

1.Demand

Itrefersquantityofgoodsandservicesbuyersorconsumersarewillingtobuyata

specificperiodatagivenprice.

Itisthequantityofgoodsandservicesthatconsumersarewillingandabletobuyifthey

considerthepricetobereasonable.

Demandisaffectedbythefollowingfactors:

 Levels ofincome i.e.households with very smallincome willafford basic

necessitiesonlyhencelowdemandforgoodswhilehouseholdswithhigherlevels

ofincomewillaffordavarietyofgoodshencegreatdemandforthosegoods.

 Population changei.e.theincreasesand decreasesin population willaffect

demand.Forinstance,anincreasednumbersofpeoplewouldresultinahigher

demandforgoodsandservices.

 Competitioni.e.ifthereisonlyonecompanywhichmakesaparticularproductand

hasareasonableprice,thentheconsumerhasnochoicewhichmeanshigh

demand.Furthermore,iftherearemanycompaniesmanufacturingaparticular

productandonecompanyhasareasonableprice,therewillbeagreaterdemandto

thecompanythatchargeslowerprices.

 Changesinpricesofrelatedgoodsi.e.ifapersonwantstobuyaproduct,healso

relatesittothecostofmaintainingit.Thatisifthepriceofrelatedgoodstoa

productishigh,thedemandfortheproductwillbelow.

 Advertisingi.e.cleverandinterestingadvertisementattractsconsumerswhich

resultintohighdemand.

2.Supply

Itreferstoquantityofgoodsandservicesproducersorsellersarewillingandabletosell

ataspecificperiodataspecificprice.

Itreferstoquantityofgoodsandserviceswhichproducersarewillingtomakeorsellata

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reasonableprice.

ThepointatwhichthesupplycurvecrossesthedemandcurveiscalledanEquilibrium

point,thatissupplyisequaltodemand.

Supplyofmoney

Thisiscurrencyincirculationoutsidethebankingsystem anddepositsinbanksandbuilding

societies.Toomuchmoneyinsupplybutlessgoodstobepurchasedleadstohighlevelsof

inflation(generalriseinpricelevelofgoodsandservices).

Thereservebankcontrolsthesupplyofmoneyby:

1.Playingaroundwithdiscountratei.e.theinterestratechargedtocommercialbanksthat

borrow moneyfrom it.Loweringthediscountratewillleadtogreatdemandforloans

hencehighsupplyofmoneywhileraisingofdiscountratewillleadtolow demandfor

moneyhencereducingthesupplyofmoney.

2.Reserverequirementorreserveratiowhichistheminimum ratioofcashreservestothe

depositsthatthecentralbankrequirescommercialbanksorbuildingsocietiestohold.

Thelowerthereserverequirement,thehigherthesupplyofmoneyandthehigherthe

reserveratio,thelowerthesupplyofmoney.

3.Openmarketoperationsi.e.whenthecentralbankbuysorsellsfinancialsecuritiesinan

openmarket.Supplyofmoneycanbereducedwhenthecentralbanksellssecuritiesto

peoplesopeoplewillusetheirmoneytobuythem.Supplyofmoneycanbeincreasedby

buyingbacksomeofitssecurities.

Thedemandformoney

Thisisasituationinwhichpeoplewouldliketohavemoney.Moneyisneededbecauseofits

purchasingpowerovergoodsandservicessinceitisusedasamediumofexchange.

Demandformoneyisdeterminedby:

1.Interestratesi.e.thehighertheinterestrate,thelowerthedemandbecausethecostof

moneyishighwhilethelowertheinterestrate,thehigherthedemandsincethecostof

moneyislowsomanypeoplecanaffordit.

2.Averagepriceofgoodsandservicesi.e.iftheirpricesarehigh,moremoneywillbe

neededfortheirpurchasewhilewhenthepricesarelow,lessmoneywillbeneededfor

theirpurchase.

3.Realincomereferstotheamountofgoodsthatcouldbeboughtwiththemoneyreceived

duringaperiodoftime.Forexample,aK100notetodaydoesnothavethesamebuying

powerastheK100notein1985.Therefore,thehighertherealincome,thelessthe

demandformoneysincelowamountofmoneycanbuymoregoods.Thelowerthereal

income,thehigherthedemandsincepeoplewillneedmoremoneytobuythesame

quantityofgoods.

TOPIC2:CULTUREANDCHANGE

Culturereferstoanythingthatissociallylearnedoracquirede.g.beliefs,artandmorals.

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Culturalcharacteristicsofeasternculture

1.Familystructuresconsistofextendedfamiliesandjointfamilieswheremorethanone

marriedcouplelivetogetherinthesamehousehold.Familiesareheadedbymenwhile

womenplayaroleofraisingchildrenandtakingcareofthehouse.

2.Foodispreparedusingherbsandspices.

3.Hospitalityandgreetingsi.e.theystresstheimportanceofhonouringguestsbygiving

them largequantitiesoffoodandtreatingthem nicelysincetheyareseenasvisitorssent

byGod.Inaddition,ifyouareinvitedtodinner,thehostpaysforit.

4.Marriagesarearrangedandpublicdisplayofaffectionbetweenspousesisnotusual.

5.MajorcommonreligionsareIslam,Hinduism,Buddhismandtraditionalreligion.

6.Dressingstylesi.e.inpredominantlyMoslem societies,mostwomendressinclothesthat

covertheirhairandfaceswhichareusuallylong.Menwearlong-sleevedonepiececloth

thatcoversthewholebody.Thereareothersocietieswhichhavetheirowntraditional

dressing.

Culturalcharacteristicsofwesternculture

1.Familystructuresarenuclearwhichconsistofahusband,wifeandtheirunmarried

children.Singleparentfamiliesarealsocommon.

2.Commontypesoffoodincluderice,breadandpasta.Meatandvegetablesform partof

theirdiet.Theyalsoliketoeatoutinrestaurants.Recipebooksareusedforpreparing

food.

3.Hospitalityandgreetingsi.e.theyrespectprivacyandvisitsareuponinvitationwith

advancenotification.Ifyouareinvitedfordinnerorlunch,everyonepaysforthemselves.

Itisquitecommontobegreetedwithahandshakeorakiss.

4.Arrangedmarriagesareunacceptableandpeopledisplaytheiraffectioninpublic.

5.MajorcommonreligionsincludeChristianityandothersareatheists(peoplewhodonot

believeinGod).

6.Dressstylesi.e.menwearshirts,trousersorsuitswhilewomenweardresses,skirts,

blouses,suitsandsometimestrousers.

7.CommonlanguagesincludeEnglishwhichiswidelyspoken,French,GermanandDutch.

ImpactofwesternandeasternculturesonMalawiandAfrica

1.Changeinfamilystructuresi.e.mostAfricanspractiseextendedfamiliesinwhichpeople

liveatthesameplacecalledhomesteadorcompoundaswellassingleparentand

nuclearfamilies.

2.Comingofvariousformsofreligionwhichwerebroughtbywesternizationsuchas

ChristianityandeasternreligionssuchasIslamandHinduism.

3.DissolutionoftraditionalreligionsincemanyAfricansadoptedChristianityandIslam

whichledtoextinctionofAfricanTraditionalReligion.

4.Review ofcertainbeliefsandpracticesbecausemanyAfricansadoptedwesternand

easterncultures.Forexample,westernizationhasmadewomentohavethesamepowers

asmen.

5.CopyingmodernwaysoflivingsincemanyAfricansviewedwesternizationasahighly

developedlife.Forexample,womenplayaroleineconomicdevelopment,childrenmaking

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personalchoicesofcareersandmostpeopledependingoneducationandnotfarming.

6.Copyingofwesternmusicanddancesincetheybringdifferentemotionswhentheysing

anddancesuchasjoyandsorrow.Thereisalsoanintroductionofwesternmusical

instrumentssuchaspiano.

7.Copyingofwesternandeasternwaysofdressingsuchassuits,trousers,shirts,blouses

andskirtsfromwesternersandheadgearsaswellasrobesfromtheeast.

8.CopyingofwesternlanguagessuchasEnglishandFrenchwhichareusedinmost

Africancountries.

9.Copyingofwesternandeasternwaysofpreparingfoodbyusingherbsandspicesfrom

theeastaswellasthepresenceofrecipebooksfromthewest.

Culturalpreservation

Itmeansdeliberatestepstakentokeepaliveaspectsofpeople’sculturee.g.languageand

stories.

Itisthepreservationofculturalheritage(aspectsofthepastthatpeoplepreserve,cultivate,

studyandpasstothenextgeneration)aswellasmaintenanceandsustenanceofnorms,beliefs

andcustomsinthesociety.Theseaspectsareintangible(whatisfelt,knownandexperienced)

e.g.traditions,habitsandcustomsaswellastangiblee.g.paintingsandbuildings.

Importanceofpreservingculture

1.Promotesidentityduetodifferentelementssuchasdressing,greetings,languageand

music.

2.Promotesunderstandingofotherpeoplebecauseofeconomicdevelopmentthatbrings

peopleofdifferentplacestogetherwhohavedifferentobjectsandcustoms.Whenthese

culturalgroupsaremixed,theyunderstandandrespecteachother.

3.Allowspassingonofculturetoothergenerationse.g.initiationceremonies,chainsof

commandwithinafamily,modeofdressing,culturalskillsandbasketweaving.

4.Promotemoreeffectiveuseofculturalassetsthroughincreasedaccessandbetterpublic

understandingoftheirvalue.

5.Promotesculturalsustenancebecausesignificantculturalresourcesarepreservedsuch

aspiecesofartandbuildings.

Strategiesusedtopreserveculture

1.Provisionofeducationalandawarenessprogrammesthatpromoteculturalpreservation.

2.Bookswhichdisseminateculturalheritagelessonsintheschoolscurriculum.

3.Artsandcraftsthatexpressculturalbeliefsandtraditions.

4.Folktales,proverbs,poemsandothernarrativeformsoforaltradition.

5.Museumsandculturalcentresinwhichobjectsandinformationaboutthepastarekept

andexhibited.

6.Policyandlegislativemeasureswhichcontroltheamountofimportedculturalproducts

e.g.copyrightlawsandlimitingthepercentageofdomesticallyproducedprogrammes.

7.Internationalculturalcooperation through signed agreements either bilateralor

multilateralbased on presentation ofAfrican artsand crafts ormusicto western

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audiencesandtransferofknowledgeonculturalinstitutionsandactivitiesfromthewest.

8.Traditionalchainsofcommandinwhichtraditionalleadersplayapartintraditional

festivalsandissuese.g.disseminatingtothepeopletheimportanceofpreservingculture

suchastraditionalmedicine.

9.Culturalorganizations,clubsandsocietieswhichdisseminatetheimportanceofcultural

preservation.

10.Musicanddance

Constraintsfacedinpreservingculture

1.Modernizationi.e.people’swayoflifehaschangedduetotechnologicalimprovements

andwesternization.

2.Changesinideologiesi.e.presentideasandbeliefsheldbydifferentgroupsofpeople

maybeinconflictwithculturalvalueshenceleadingtotheresistanceoftraditional

religions.

3.Resistancebynew generationssincetheyouthmayresistsomeculturalpractices

becausetheylookatthemasoldfashionedandnotinlinewithmoderndemands.

4.The media such as radio,television and newspaperhas broughtculturallife and

technologicalstandardsthatareeasilyacceptedbyalargepopulation.

5.Needforchangesincesomeculturalpracticeshindersocio-culturaldevelopmentsothey

needtobeeradicated.

6.Lack offinancial,human and otherresources to achieve the process ofcultural

preservation.Forexample,financeisneededtofundtheactivitiestowardscultural

preservationandpeopleareneededtoworkintheseprogrammes.

7.Humanrightsi.e.someculturalpracticesareviolationsofhumanrightssothereisno

choicebuttochangethem.

Cultureanddevelopment

Someculturalvaluespromotedevelopmentthroughthefollowingways:

1.Unitywhichisbroughtbyunderstandingandrespectingofotherpeople’scultures.

2.Culturaltourismwhichmakesvisitorstostaylongerandspendmoremoneyinanareaso

thisgeneratesforeignexchange.

3.Theuseofvernacularlanguageonthemediamakespeopleunderstandsomeimportant

messagessopeoplefeelthattheyarepartofthesociety.

4.Incorporationofvaluableaspectsoftraditionalcultureintomodernsystemsofeducation

andhealthsuchaspartnershipbetweenwesternmedicineandtraditionalhealers.

5.Employmentopportunitiesintradeslikeartsandcraftsaswellasculturaltourismandthe

hotelindustry.

6.Traditionalchainsofcommandsinwhichleadersareusingtheirpowertopersuade

peoplesuchasfishermentoactresponsiblybynotfishingduringthebreedingseason.

Culturalpracticeswhichhinderdevelopment

1.InitiationceremoniespractisedbysometribessuchastheYaomakechildrentobe

withdrawnfrom schoolsothechildrenmightthinkthatschoolisnotimportantandget

marriedearly.

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2.Theritualof‘fisi’inwhichamanhassexualintercoursewithanewlyinitiatedgirltobring

herintowomanhoodenticesthegirlintoearlymarriagesandhencedropoutofschool

andevencontractHIV/AIDS.

3.Thebeliefinwitchcraftpreventspeoplefrom succeedinginlifebecausethosethatfeel

thattheymightbebewitchedavoiddoingactionswhichassistindevelopment.

Multiculturalism

Itmeansrecognitionandappreciationofmanyculturalgroupswithinasocietyorhavingmany

cultures.

Itissometimesknownasculturalpluralismormulti-ethnicityormulti-racial.

Factorsthatenhancemulticulturalism

1.Modernizationi.e.industrialization,easymovementofgoodsaswellasthemediahave

led to changes in languages,aspirations(ambitions),patterns ofconsumption and

lifestyles.

2.Religioni.e.differentformsofreligionfollowed bydifferentreligiousgroupsaffect

culturalvalues.

3.Racewhichisgroupingofpeopleaccordingtotheirphysicalcharacteristics(e.g.colour

ofskinandhair,shapeofeyesandnose)resultsintomulticulturalism ifdifferentraces

mix.

4.Ethnicitybringsasocietywith amulticulturalsocietybecausedifferenttribesstay

together.

5.Migrationduetoconflicts,poorgovernance,socialandeconomicreasonsbringspeople

ofdifferentculturestogether.

6.Tradecausesmovementofpeoplefrom oneplacetoanothersodifferentracesorethnic

groupslivetogetherandsharedifferentcultures.

7.Intermarriagebringsculturalchangessincedifferenttribesmarry.

8. Citizenshipwhichiseitherthroughbirthorchoicemakespeoplefrom differentcountries

stayatoneplace.

Impactofmulticulturalismondevelopment

1.Positive

a.Unityandtoleranceduetopeople’srespectforeachothersculturesandrights.

b.Improvedcountry’simagebecausemulticulturalism indicatesthatpeoplefrom

differentbackgroundsaretolerantofoneanother.

c.Exchangeofculturessincestayingtogethermakespeopletobefamiliarofother’s

cultures.

d.Exchangeofideasbecausemulticulturalism helpsthecountrytobeupdatedwith

developmentaroundtheworld.

e.Exchangeofskillsbecauseacountrywithgoodmulticulturalism policiescanget

skilledemployeesfrom othercountrieswhendomesticlabourcannotmeetlocal

demandinthetimerequired.

f.Encourageglobalmarketsduetoaccesstoinfluentialnetworksinothercountries,

potentialforintroduction ofnew productsand testingofproductson global

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markets.

2.Negative

a.Ethnicorracialrivalrybecauseoneracialorethnicgroupwantstoexercise

supremacyorrefusescommonsetofrulesforpeacefulco-existence.

b.Dilutionofotherculturesbecausesomeculturalvalueinfluencesoneachother

resultingintodilutionofotherculturalvalues.

c.Economicexploitationsinceminoritygroupsorthelessinfluentialgroupsmaybe

deprivedfromopportunitiesbythemajority.Inaddition,theirqualificationsmaynot

beeasilyrecognized.

d.Expensive to promote because the recently migrated mightneed language

acquisition,medicalcareandaccommodation.

Discrimination

Thismeansunequaltreatmentofequals.

Itmeansanyexclusion,restrictionorpreferencewhichhasthepurposeofimpairingthe

recognition,enjoymentorexerciseofhumanrightsorfundamentalfreedomsoflife.

Factorsthatcontributetodiscrimination

1.Racism whichinvolvestreatingonegroupofpeoplelessfavorablythantheotherdueto

physicalcharacteristics.Thisissincesomeracesbelievethattheyaresuperiortothe

other.

2.Ethnicityorethnocentrismisdonebecauseofethnicbackgroundasaresultofoneethnic

groupexercisingsuperiority.

3.Genderpreferenceswhichinvolvestreatingapersonlessfairlythantheotherduetotheir

sex,maritalstatusorbecausetheyarepregnant.

4.Religionorcastesystem whichinvolvesdiscriminationduetodifferencesinreligionor

socialranks.

5.Disabilitydiscriminationisdoneduetopeople’sphysicalandmentalhealth.Disabled

peoplefaceproblemsinaccessingeducationandemployment.

6.Illhealthdiscriminationbecauseofpoorhealthstatusespeciallychronicdiseasese.g.

HIV/AIDS.Peoplefacebarrierstoaccessgood qualityhealthtreatment,education,

trainingandpromotion.

7.Nationalism referstodiscriminationagainstforeignersbecausecitizensofaspecific

countryaretoopatriotictowardstheircountryandfeelforeignersonlycometoexploit

theirbestcountry.

8.Economicandsocialstatusdiscriminateagainstothersbecausepeoplefrom wealthy

familiesorthosewho havereceived good education ataprestigious(admired and

respected)schoolexercisesuperiority.

9.Politicaldiscriminationiscausedbyholdingdifferentpoliticalideologies.

Casestudiesofdiscrimination

1.ApartheidinSouthAfrica

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Thiswasduetoracialdiscriminationwhichresultedingreatinequalitiesinincome

betweentheblacksandthewhites.Italsoledtoinequalitiesintraining,promotionand

entrenchment.Therewasalsounequaldistributionofassetslikepreventingtheblack

Africansfromowningland.

2.CastesysteminIndia

Castereferstospecifyagroupofpeoplehavingaspecificsocialrank.Thissystem is

closelyconnectedwithHinduism inIndiaandclassifiestheHindusintofourgroupsin

hierarchicalorder.Themembersofeachgroupbelievetheyaredescendantsofone

ancestor.

Thefourbasicgroupsinclude:

 Brahmanswhoarethepriestsandthelearnedclass.

 Kshatriyaswhoarerulers,warriorsandpropertyowners.

 Vaishyaswhoaretradersordealwithcommerciallivelihoods.

 Shudraswhoarelabourers.

Thesystem hastheuntouchableswhodonotbelongtoanyofthecastegroupsandwere

historicallynotallowedintemplesandotherpublicplaces.Theirjobsincludetoilet

cleaningandgarbage(rubbish)removalhencethe‘untouchable’.

3.RacisminAmerica

TheKuKluxKlanisawhitemostinfluentialsupremacistorganizationintheUSAwhich

believesthatblacksareinferiortothewhitesandaimsatkeepingAmericawhite.They

alsobelievethatpeopleofdifferentracesshouldbeseparatedhencediscourageinter

racialmarriages.TheKuKluxKlanisinvolvedinracialcrimes.Forexample,inMarch,

1997,a13yearoldblackboywhorodehisbicycleinawhiteneighbourhoodwas

attackedandleftbraindamaged.Inaddition,in1981,ablackmanwaschainedand

draggedtohisdeathbyapick-uptruckinTexas.

4.Neo-NazisminGermany

TheNaziPartyruledGermanyundertheleadershipofAdolfHitlerfrom 1933to1945.

Underhisleadership,heendorsedracialviolenceandgenocidee.g.thenotableonein

whichmillionsofJewsweresystematicallykilled.TheNeo-Naziisagroupofrightwing

extremistswhobelievethatGermanyshouldbeforGermansthatisforthosewhohavea

German ancestry.The Neo-Naziare therefore involved in violence and hatred of

foreignerssuchthattheyengageinphysicalandverbalattacksonforeigners.

Effectsofdiscrimination

1.Socialinstability

2.Crime

3.Retardeddevelopmentduetowastageofresourcesduringconflicts.

4.Unfairdistributionofresources.

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5.Affectspeople’scareersandacademicperformance.

6.Highorganizationalcostsduetoabsenteeism.

7.Lowproductivityduetolowmoraleandabsenteeism.

8.Decreasedenergyandstressrelatedailments(diseases)

Effortstocurbdiscrimination

1.Theratification ofhuman rightsbynationswhich meanscountriesagreeto apply

principlescontainedintheCharteroftheUnitedNationswhichrecognizesthatallpeople

arebornfreeandequalindignityrightsandthateveryoneisentitledtoallhumanrights

andfreedomswithoutanydistinction.

2.EntrenchmentofBillofRightsintheconstitutionbydifferentcountriesshowsthatnolaw

canbevaried.Abillofrightsisalistofrightsofindividualsinacountry.TheConstitution

ofMalawihasentrenchedinitthebillofrights.

3.Establishmentofinstitutionsthatpromotehumanrightse.g.AmnestyInternationaland

MalawiCentreforHumanRights.

TOPIC3:GENDERANDDEVELOPMENT

Gendermeansthephysicalandsocialconditionofbeingmaleorfemale.Itlooksataperson’s

selfperceptionofbeingmaleorfemaleinasocietyorcultureorexpectationsthatpeoplemay

haveinrelationtorolesandresponsibilitiesbecausetheyaremaleorfemale.

Genderrolesandresponsibilitiesaremadebythesocietyandlearned,therefore,theycanbe

changed.

Examplesofgenderrolesforwomeninclude:cryingatfuneral,takingcareofchildrenathome,

cookingforthefamilyandtakingcareofsickpeople.

Examplesofgenderrolesformenincludediggingatfuneral,abreadwinnerforthefamilyand

headingthehousehold.

Genderdevelopmentistheprocessofremovalofsocio-culturalproblemstomobility,accessto

resourcesandopportunitiesandemergenceofamorejustsociety.

Historyofgender

Itcanbetracedbacktoasearlyas1945whentheUnitedNationswasformed.

ThefollowingisabriefsummaryofUNapproachestogenderdevelopmentworldwide:

1.TheAntiPovertyApproach(1960-1970)

Itconcentratedonreducingpovertyofthepoorcountries.Itaimedatincomegenerating

activitiesthatwouldhelpincreatingincreasedcapitalaccumulationandincomeper

capita.

Itfailedtohelpreducepovertytothevulnerablegroupse.g.women,children,theelderly

andthedisabled.

2.TheWelfareApproach(1970-1980)

ItwasadoptedintheseconddevelopmentdecadeoftheUnitedNations.Itfocusedon

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redistributionofcontroloverresources.Specialwelfareprogrammesweredesignedfor

thevulnerablegroupsinthesocietyinordertoaddresstheinequalitiesthatexisted

betweenmenandwomen.

ThisledtothedevelopmentofWomeninDevelopmentApproach

3.WomeninDevelopmentApproach(1975-1985)

Itaimsatincreasingopportunitiesforwomentoparticipatein,contributetoandbenefit

fromthedevelopmentoftheirsocietiesandeconomies.

Itwascriticizedbecause:

 Itfocusedonwomeninthedevelopmentprocess.

 Itassumedthatwomenarepassiverecipientsofdevelopmentandnotactive

participantsinthedevelopmentprocesswhichisnottrue.

4.GenderandDevelopmentApproach(fromlate1985)

Itincludesbothmenandwomenasagentsofdevelopment.Itisbasedonthefactthatit

isonlyeffortsthatconsidermen and women aspartnersand notcompetitorsin

developmentthatcansuccessfullybringaboutwomen’sequalityandempowerment.

GenderissuesinAfrica

1.Gender,educationandtraining

Educationandtrainingofbothsexesareveryessentialfordevelopment.However,in

mostdevelopingcountries,especiallyinAfrica,educationforfemalesisaproblem.

Discriminationinagirl’saccesstoeducationisduetocustomsandtraditionsthatleadto

agirl’searlymarriageandpregnancy.Forinstance,agirlisgivenheavydomesticwork,

thereforeshecannotdowellinclassandalsomissesclasses.

2.Genderandhealth

Bothmenandwomenhavearighttoqualityhealthcarebutwomendonotenjoythisright

duetoinequality.Forexample,manywomenindevelopingcountrieshavelimitedpower

onissuesaffectingtheirreproductivehealthbecausemendecidewhenandhowoftento

reproduce.Inaddition,thewomenareexposedtoculturalpracticesthatnegatively

impactontheirhealthsuchaskusasafumbi.

3.Genderandviolence

Violenceagainstwomenreferstoanyactbymenthatresultsinorislikelytoresultin

physical,psychologicalorsexualharm orsufferinginwomen.Itoccursathome,inwork

places,schoolsandpublicplaces.

Violenceagainstwomenisdoneinthefollowingways:

 Sexualabusewhichincluderape,unwelcomesexualcomments,requestforsexual

favoursbypeopleinauthorityinordertogetfavours,traditionalpracticesthat

promoteunwantedsexualpracticese.g.fisi.

 Physicalabusewhichincludewifebattering(beating)

 Psychologicaloremotionalabusereferstothecallingofwomenbadnames,

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makingthreatstohurtthem andisolatingthem bycontrollingwhotheyshouldsee

ortalkto.

 Economicabusewhichincludeahusbandrefusinghiswifegettingorkeepinga

job,taking hermoneyawaywithoutherconsent,snatching awayproductive

propertyuponthedeathofherhusbandordenyingwomenaccesstocreditsince

theyarewomen.

4.Genderandenvironment

TheenvironmentisrapidlybeingdepletedinAfricaduetohighpopulationgrowthand

poorlandmanagementpractices.Womenarehardesthitbecauseoftheirgenderrolesof

fetching waterand firewood which arebecoming scarcebecauseofdeforestation.

Women also lackaccess and controlto productive resources e.g.land,improved

technologyandextensionservices.

5.Gender,poweranddecisionmaking

Womenareunderrepresentedinmostlevelsofpublicoffice.Forexample,inJuly,1999,

therewereonly17femaleMPsoutof193MPsand4out28cabinetministers.

6.Genderandreligion

Allreligionssupporttheideathatwomen’smostimportantrolesareaswivesand

mothers.Forexample,MoslemsencouragewifelyobediencewhileHinduswanttheir

womentobefaithful,dutifulanddevoted.Christianssupportmaledominationaccording

tothelettersofStPaul.

7.Genderandrights

Theconstitutionsofmanycountriesgivemenandwomenequalrights.Forinstance,the

MalawianConstitutionstatesthatwomenhaverightstoregulatetheirfertilityandinherit

property.However,mostwomenarenotawareoftheirrights.Customarylaws,religion

andculturekeepwomeninaninferiorpositione.g.womendonotknowhowtobuyand

registerlandorclaimownershipofproperty.

8.Genderandculture

InsomesocietiesincludingMalawi,bothboysandgirlsundergoinitiationceremoniesso

thattheyaretaughttheircustomse.g.girlsaretaughthow tobewivesandmothers

whichmeanstheyaremeanttodohouseholdchoresonly.

Laws,rulesandregulationsthataregenderbiasedinMalawiandAfrica

1.TheWillsandInheritanceAct-Malawi’sconstitutiongiveswomentherighttoinherit

property.However,customarylawsaffectthewomen’srightswhereamandieswithout

leavingawill.Theselawsdependwhetherthepeopleinvolvedliveinpatrilinealor

matrilinealsystem.Ifahusbanddiesinamatrilinealsystem,hiskine.g.maternaluncles,

brothersandsisters,nephewsandniecesinheritpropertywhileinpatrilinealsystem,his

brothersandfatherinheritpropertyleavingthewidowisolatedwithoutanyproperty.

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2.Maternityleave-Manywomenfaceproblemsingettingmaternityleaveespeciallyinthe

privatesectorbecausetheythinkthatifawomangetsmaternityleave,theirbusiness

maysuffer.Inaddition,manyemployersdonotemploywomentoavoidasituationwhen

awomanwillneedmaternityleave.

3.Citizenshiplaws-ThecitizenshipactofMalawiandmanyAfricancountriessaythatupon

marryingaforeigner,theMalawianwomanwilllosehercitizenshipunlesssherenounces

herforeigncitizenshiponher1

anniversaryofhermarriage.Inaddition,childrenborn

from aMalawianwomanbyaforeignercannotbeMalawianswhileaMalawianman

marriedtoaforeignerstillremainsaMalawian.

4.Suspensionofpregnantgirls-InmostAfricancountries,includingMalawi,pregnant

teenagegirlswereexpelledfromschool.

5.Religiouslaws-Manyreligionsdonotallowwomentotakeleadingrolese.g.priestsin

theRomanCatholicaremales.

6.Marriagelaws-InmanyAfricancountries,menbylawareallowedtohavemorethanone

womanwithouttheconsentofthefirstwife.However,awomancannothavetwo

husbands.

7.Travelregulations– in someAfrican countries,awoman’srightto acquiretravel

documentsarerestrictedbyhermarriage.Insuchcountries,ahusbandissupposedto

consentifthewifeissupposedtobegivenapassport.

8.Supportofchildrenbornoutofwedlock–inthelawsofmanyAfricancountries,mothers

whohavechildrenoutofwedlockshouldreceivefinancialsupportfrom theresponsible

fatherforthechild’supkeep.Theproblem istheamountofsupportrequiredisnot

regularlyupdatede.g.inMalawiitwassetatMK250permonthin1999whichis

inadequateforsupportingthechild.

Revisedrulesandregulations

1.Willsandinheritanceact–Thishelpsthewomentoacquirepropertyifthehusbandis

dead.Inapatrilinealsystem,thewidowisentitledtoallhouseholdbelongingsandtwo

fifthsoftherestofhisproperty.Thisisalsosharedwiththechildrenandotherdirect

dependants.Inmatrilinealsystem,thewidowisentitledtohalfthehouseholdbelongings.

Theotherhalfisdistributedamongthedeadhusband’srelatives.

2.Dressact–itmadeitpossibleforwomentowearclothingappropriatefortheirwork.

3.Equalityineducationhasbeenachievedbydoingthefollowing:

a.Studentswhoaresuspendedduetopregnancyreturntoschooloneyearafterbirth.

b.Schoolandteachertrainingcurriculahavebeenrevisedtomakethem gender

sensitive.

c.Therequirementtoworkschooluniformatprimaryschoolhasbeenabolished.

d.Schoolfeesforgirlsinsecondaryschoolswereabolishedfortwoyears.

e.Ascholarshipfundwasestablishedtohelpgirlsstayinsecondaryschools.

WaysofachievinggenderbalanceinAfrica

1.Provideeducationtobothboysandgirls.

2.Equalopportunitiestobothsexeswhenprovidingcredits,incomegeneratingactivities

andtraining.

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3.Encouragethemediatoincludepositivegendermessagesintoprogrammessuchassoap

operas.

4.Civiceducationprogrammestodisseminategirlsorwomenrights.

5.Establishmentoforganizationsthatshouldassistindealingwithcustomarylaw and

protectionofhumanrights.

Effectsofgenderbias

1.Retardsdevelopmentbecausewomenarenotallowedtomakeimportantdecisionsand

donothaveaccesstoeconomicopportunities.

2.Women haveunequalaccessto opportunitiessuch aseducation,employmentand

businesswhichwilllikelyresultinshortageofskilledhumanresources.

3.Highlevelsofunemploymentsincemanywomendonothaveaccesstoeconomic

opportunities.

4.Malnutrition and diseases since women who are involved in running farms and

householdslackaccesstoeconomicopportunities.

5.Earlymarriagesforgirlssinceasingleparentfamilywillwithdrawagirlfrom schoolas

onewayofendingpoverty.

Genderbalance

Itmeansprovisionofequalopportunitiesandequity(fairness)betweenmenandwomenin

humanrights,resourcesandstatusinthesociety.

Indicatorsofgenderbalance

1.Equalityandequityineducationwherethereishigheducationalenrolmentforbothsexes,

enrolmentofgirlsinnon-traditionalcoursese.g.engineeringandalsothecurriculum

shouldbegendersensitive.

2.Equalityandequityinhealthcarerelatedserviceswherebothsexeshaveaccessto

appropriatehealthcaresuchasinformationonsexualandreproductivehealthcare.

3.Equalityandequityinenvironmentalmanagementinwhichbothsexeshaveaccessto,

controland ownership ofproductiveresourcese.g.land,improved technologyand

extensionservices.

4.Equalityandequityinpoweranddecisionmakingatalllevelsbybothsexesaswellas

sharingpowerininfluentialpositionsinthecentralexecutivesofparties.

5. Equalityandequitybeforethelaw andhumanrightsbyrespectingforandadequate

promotionaswellasprotectionofhumanrightsofbothmenandwomen.Inaddition

peoplewillbeawareoftheirrightssothattheycanfullyenjoythem.

6.Equalityandequityineconomicopportunitiesbybothsexesinemployment,credit

facilitiesandagriculturalinputs.

Importanceofgenderbalance

1.Abundantskilledhumanresourcessincebothsexeswillhaveequalaccesstoeducation

andtraining.

2.Equalcontributionstodevelopmentbecausebothmenandwomenwillhaveequalaccess

topowerstructuresthatcontrolsocietyanddeterminedevelopmentissues.

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3.Morecommunitydevelopmentactivitiesduetoactiveparticipationbybothsexes.

4.Equalaccesstoeconomicresourceslikecreditthatwillmakemorewomenandmento

startsmallbusinessesasselfemployment.

5.Improvedhealthstatusandstandardsoflivingsincebothsexeshaveaccesstoquality

healthandeducation.

Genderplatformofaction

Thisisthepowerfulagendathatisaimedatempoweringwomenindifferentcountries.

Itmainlyaimsatthefollowing:

 Acceleratingtheimplementationofmethodsthathelpwomentoadvanceordevelop.

 Removingallobstacles(barriers)towomen’sactiveparticipationinallsectorsofpublic

andprivatelifebyhavingfullandequalshareineconomic,social,culturalandpolitical

decision-making.

Examplesofgenderplatformsofactioninclude:

 TheBeijingPlatform forActionthatwasadoptedattheFourthWorldConferenceon

WomenheldinBeijing,ChinainSeptember,1995.

 TheMalawiNationalPlatformforActiondevelopedin1997bytheMalawianGovernment.

TheMalawiNationalPlatformforAction

Itmakesacommitmenttoimprovethestatusofwomeninthe21

Centuryandidentifiesfour

priorityareasnamely:

1.Povertyalleviationandempowerment–womenshallbeempoweredin:

a.AgriculturebymakingpoliciesandprogrammesintheMinistryofAgriculture

gendersensitive,increasingwomen’saccesstoagricultureandirrigationextension

servicesaswellascredits.

b.Employmentbyincreasingwomen’saccessinformalemploymentandeliminating

sexualharassmentintheworkplace.

c.Women’sreproductivehealthbyincreasingwomen’saccesstoqualityhealthcare

andeliminatingattitudesandsocio-culturalexpectationsthatnegativelyimpacton

women.

d.Foodsecuritybyincreasingwomen’saccesstobetternutritionandeliminating

householdfoodinsecurity.

e.Environmentalmanagementbyincreasingwomen’sparticipationinenvironmental

decisionmakingandcontributiontoenvironmentalfriendlytechnologies.

2.Thegirlchildwhoisusuallydiscriminatedagainstshallbeassistedusingthefollowing:

a.Eliminatingallsocio-culturalpracticesthatnegativelyimpactonthegirlchildby

provisionofqualityeducationandschoolenvironment,eliminatingdiscrimination

againstadisabledgirl,eliminatingprevalenceofstreetchildreninurbancentres

anddomesticpracticesthatharm thegirl’shealthaswellasmakingtheschool

environmentfriendlytothegirlchild.

3.Violenceagainstwomensuchasrapeandwifebatteringshallbeaddressedbypreventing

andeliminatingviolenceagainstwomeninpublicplaces,institutionsandhomesaswell

asexaminingtheextentandnatureofviolenceagainstwomen.

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4.Peaceamongwomeninfamiliesshallbeaddressedbypromotingequalityandprotection

ofhumanrightsandwomen,makingthesocietyandwomenawareofhumanrightsas

providedintheconstitutionaswellasinternationallyacceptedstandardsofhumanrights

andtherightsofwomen.

OtherproposedobjectivesoftheMalawiNationalPlatformforAction

1.Toremovediscriminatorypracticesagainstwomen,childrenandthedisabledinhousing

loanschemestoenhancetheirproductivity.

2.Toimprovethepoor’s,women’sanddisabledpeople’saccesstolandandlandtenure.

3.Toprovideadequatesafeenvironmentalinfrastructureandservices.

4.Toincreasethenumberofwomenindecisionmakingpositionsinpoliticalsystemsatall

levels.

5.Tominimisetheeffectsofarmedconflictsonwomen.

6.Tomakethearmygendersensitiveanditscompositiongenderbalanced.

7.To enhance(accelerate)women’s capacity to participate in decision-making and

leadershippositions.

Rolesofthegenderplatformofaction

1.Ithelpstoensurefullenjoymentbywomenandgirlsofallhumanrightsandfundamental

freedoms.

2.Itrecommendsmeasurestoeliminateallformsofdiscriminationagainstwomenandthe

girlchild.

3.Encouragesmentoparticipatefullyintheactionstowardsgenderequality.

4.Itpromoteswomen’seconomicindependencebyensuringwomen’saccesstoeconomic

resourceslikecredit,training,landandemployment.

5.Ithelpsinensuringequalaccesstoandequaltreatmentofwomenandmenineducation

andhealthcare.

6.Itlobbiesforthereviewandremovalofthelawsandculturalbeliefsandpracticesthat

promotegenderim-balance.

TOPIC4:CITIZENSHIP

Civilsociety

Itreferstoallnon-governmentalorstateorgansandinstitutionsthatparticipateinarelatively

organizedmannertowardstheexerciseofpowerbythestate.

Itmeansdifferentorganizations,unionsandassociationswhichhavetherighttoworkinvarious

areasinacountrywithouttheinterferenceofthegovernmentaslongastheydonotcontravene

theconstitution.

Theirmainobjectiveistogettheparticipationofcommunityorgrass-rootlevelindecision-

makinginmattersoflocalinterest.

InstitutionsofcivilsocietyinMalawi

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1.Institutionsoragencies

Theseareintermediateagenciesthatoperatewithfull-timestaffandprovideavarietyof

servicestopeople’sorganizations.Theyareclassifiedintofournamely:

a.Development,justice and advocacy NGOs – these are commonly called

developmentNGOsandworktoserviceautonomouspeople’sorganizationsby

doingexperimentstomaintainsocialorder,participationandsustainability.These

areautonomousandpoliticallyneutralintheiractivitiesthoughtheydependon

donorfunding.

b.TraditionalNGOs– thesearecharitable,welfareandrelieforganizationsthat

provide services to the poor through orphanages,feeding programmes,

rehabilitation,homes forthe elderly,persecuted and others.They focus on

individualsandfamiliesthatareunabletocopewithpovertysituations.

c.Fundingagencies–thesearefoundationsandgrantgivingagencieswhichdonot

havedirectlinkwithgrassrootpeoplebutlargelyfunctiontosupportthroughloans

anddonations.

d.MutantNGOs–thesearespecialconsultancyorganizationswhichprovideadvice

anddirectionontheuseofdonorfunds.Theyaregovernmentinitiated,private

businesscorporationsandvariousshorttimeorganizationsthatusuallyexistfora

shorttimehencetheirmutant.

2.Membershipbasedorganizations

Theseoperateonvoluntarymembershipdealingwithnon-stock(non-profit)activities.

Theyaresub-dividedintotwomajorgroupsnamely:

a.Professionals,academicsandcivicorganizations

b.People’sorganizations(i.e.grassrootgroupsincommunities)whicharedivided

intosubgroups:

i.Governmentrunorganizationswhichareorganizeddirectlyorindirectlyby

thegovernmentorpoliticians.

ii.Autonomouspeople’sorganizationsthatmaybemarginalizedcommunities

andsectors.

3.Influentialnon-governmentalindividuals(e.g.academics,churchleaders,partyleaders

and professionals) whose statements or observations are regarded as being

representativeofthesocietye.g.NelsonMandela.

Rolesofinstitutionsofthecivilsociety

1.Provideeducationtopeopleinhealth,humanrights,environmentandothers.

2.Provideeconomicopportunitiestograssrootpeople.

3.Helpthegovernmenttoenforcesomeofitspoliciesandprogrammeslikeprotectionof

theenvironment.

4.Providereportsaimedatsensitizingthegeneralpubliconissuesinvolvedandassistin

theformulationormodificationofthegovernment’spolicies.

5.Sensitizepeopleontheirrightsandfreedomsinthedemocratizationprocess.

6.Provideexpertise,financialandtechnicalresourcestofacilitateaparticularaspectof

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development.

7.Actasarbitratorsbyhelpinginsolvingproblemsbetweentwoparties.

Importanceofcitizenparticipationincivilsociety

1.Peoplearemotivatedwhentheprojectisdoneintheircommunity.

2.Cooperationandunitysincepeopleareabletodiscusswaysofsolvingtheirproblems.

3.Developasenseofownershipandcaringofnewfacilitieswhentheyarecompleted.

4.Promotedevelopment

5.Strengthensthecivilsociety

Howcitizensparticipateininstitutionsofcivilsociety

1.Bybeingmembersofdifferentinstitutions.

2.Byattendingmeetingsoftheseinstitutions.

3.Bycontributingideas,financesandotherresources.

4.Byimplementingtheinformationprovidedbytheseinstitutions.

Unions,associationsandnationalservice

 Unionsortradeunionsaremembershipbasedcivilsocietyorganizationsformedbya

groupofworkerstopromoteandprotecttheirrights.Theyaim atmobilizing,organizing

andeducatingemployeestochangetheindividualandsociety.

Theirmajorprinciplesincludeaction,participation,commitmentandactivity.

Theyhaveaconstitutionandarelegallyprotected.Theyalsoreflectcommonprofessional

characteristicsliketeachingandlaw e.g.theCivilServantsTradeUnionandTeachers

UnionofMalawi.

 Anassociationisamembershipbasedcivilsocietyinstitutionthatismadeupofpeople

whobelongtothesameprofessionandareinvolvedinactivitiesthatreflectthesame

objectives.Theymobilize,organizeandeducatememberstotransformtheindividualand

society.Theyalsohaveaconstitutionandarelegallyprotected.ExamplesincludeTea

GrowersAssociation,NationalAssociationofSmallholderFarmers(NASFAM)and

TobaccoAssociationofMalawi(TAMA)

Rolesofunionsandassociations

1.Provideleadershipfortheirmembers.

2.Trainingmembersnegotiationanddecisionmakingskills.

3.Expressingunitedviewsoftheirmemberstotheauthority.

4.Promotingandprotectingrightsoftheirmembers.

5.Influencinggovernmentdecisionsandpoliciesinmattersaffectingmembers.

Unionsandassociationsusuallyusetheprincipleofnegotiationtoaddressthemembers

concerns.However,theymayresorttoanumberofindustrialactionsinordertosensitizethe

employerstoaddresstheirdemands.Theseinclude:

1.Go-slow–employeesmaydecidetoputpressureonanemployerbyreducingtheamount

oftheirdailyproductivityoutput.Thiswillusuallydevelopintoeitherasit-inorstay-away.

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2.Stay-away – union members stay away from normalduty in orderto pressurize

employerstoagreetotheirdemands.

3.Sit-in–employeesreportfordutiesatworkplacebutcollectthemselvesatanopenplace

stayingawayfromwork-relatedactivitieswhiletheemployerlookson.

4.Procession–workersmobilizeandorganizeeachotherintoagroupandparadethrough

astreetdemonstrationusingplacardswhichbeartheirgrievancesorconcerns.

Unions/associationsbenefits

1.Provisionofcreditschemes.

2.Protectionagainstunfairdismissal

3.Ensuringpaymentofpensionschemes.

4.Legalassistancewhenaworkerisvictimized.

5.Improvedrelationshipbetweentheemployersandemployees(workers)

6.Betterworkingconditions

7.Educationfacilities

8.Freedomfromexploitation.

9.Sickleavebenefits

10.Socialwelfareactivities

11.Transport

12.Betteraccommodation

13.Maternityprotection

14.Betterwagesandsalaries

Nationalservice

Thisisanarrangementwheremembersofbothgovernmentandciviccommunitydotheir

voluntaryservicestoaspectsofdevelopmentfortheirownlives.

Casestudiesofnationalservice

1.MalawiSocialActionFund(MASAF)

ThisisafundwhichwassetupbytheMalawiangovernmentinpartnershipwiththe

WorldBankinordertostimulateandimplementvariousactivitiesatcommunitylevel.

MASAF activities are based on voluntarism and communalism since communities

organizethemselvestocontributetocertainaspectsoftheproject.Thecontributioncan

beeitherthroughthemouldingofbricksorprovisionofbuildingexpertisewhileMASAF

supportstheprojectthroughfinancialinput.

2.MalawiYoungPioneers

Thisdefunctmovementhadtrainingbasesthroughoutthecountry.Theaimsofthe

trainingbasesweretopromoteunity,selfrelianceandahardworkingspirit.

Candidatesweremainlyrecruitedfromruralareasandsecondaryschoolsduringthelong

schoolvacations.Thenon-studentcandidateswerebeingtrainedfortenmonthsand

couldeithergraduateorreturntotheirhomestopractisetheskillslearnt.Student

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candidateswouldserveintheMYPduringthethreemonthholidayandgohometodo

leadershiprolestodevelopthecountry.

ItwasdismantledbytheMalawiArmyinDecember,1993sinceitsactivitieswerein

conflictwiththedemocratizationprocess.

3.YouthWeek

Itwasestablishedin1971.Thisinvolvedaweeklongperiodbyboththeschoolsandlocal

communities dedicated to various developmentprojects.These activities included

buildingschool,constructionofroadsandbridges,assisting publicinstitutionslike

hospitals.

Importanceofthenationalservice

1.Eradicateilliteracy

2.Encouragecommunityhygiene

3.Protecttheenvironment

4.Enhancesnationaldevelopment

Internationalorganizations

TheseworkindifferentdevelopmentactivitiesinMalawiandexamplesincludeWorldVision

International,PlanInternationalandCARE.

Typesofdevelopmentactivities

1.Watersupplyandsanitation

2.Environmentalconservation

3.Infrastructuredevelopment

4.Genderpromotion

5.Humanrightsandgoodgovernance

6.Agriculturalactivities

7.Healthissues

Importanceofinternationalorganizations

1.Providetechnicalexpertiseinareasofeducation,politics,healthandmedia.

2.Provideeconomicopportunitiestolocalcommunitiesandindividualsbyfinancingsmall

enterpriseprojects.

3.Initiateandstrengthenbilateralrelationsduetoexchangeofexpertise,informationand

trade.

4.Bridgingthegapbetweentherichandthepoorbyprovisionofeconomicopportunitiesto

thepoor.

5.Promoteandprotecthumanrightsandgoodgovernance.

6.Globalization since every activity by the international organizations involves

communicationsoitmakestheworldasmallvillage.

TOPIC5:GOVERNMENT

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Governmentreferstothegroupofpeoplegoverningthestateaccordingtothegivenconstitution.

Statereferstothesystem whichmakesandenforcesdecisionsforthesociety.Itincludesthe

government,civilservice,thearmyandthejudicialsystem.

Aconstitutionisalegaldocumentthatdescribeshowthecountryshouldbegoverned.

Functionsanddutiesofthestate

1.Promotingwelfareanddevelopmentofallpeoplebyimplementingpoliciesandlawsthat

achieveanumberofgoals.

2.Toobtainequalityforwomenthroughfullparticipationofwomeninallmattersinthe

society.

3.Toachieveadequatenutritionforallinordertopromotegoodhealthandselfsufficiency.

4.Toprovideadequatehealthcaretosuitwithhealthneedsofallpeopleinthesocietyand

internationalstandardsofhealth.

5.Toensurethattheenvironmentismanagedproperly.

6.Toprovideadequateresourcestotheeducationsectorinordertoeliminateilliteracy.

7.Tomakeagreementsandtreatieswithothernation-statesonbehalfofitspeople.

8.Topromoteeconomicdevelopmentofitspeoplesothatthereisabalanceofthe

distributionofwealth.

9.Introducemeasureswhichwillguaranteeaccountability,transparency,personalhonesty

andfinancialprobity(totalhonesty)inordertopromotepublictrustandgoodgovernance.

Thepresident

Thisistheheadofstatenormallychosenbythepeopletoserveforaperiodoftime.However,

somenation-statesareheadedbyqueensorkingsliketheUnitedKingdomareheadedbyQueen

ElizabethandSwazilandisheadedbyKingNswati.

Theroleofthepresident

1.Headofstateandgovernmentwhichmeansheprovidesexecutiveleadershiptothe

country.

2.Commander-in-chiefofthearmedforceslikeinMalawithearmedforcesincludethe

MalawiArmy,theMalawiPoliceServiceandtheMalawiPrison.

3.Representative ofpeople because when heads ofotherstates and otherforeign

dignitariesvisitthecountry,theycallonhim.Inaddition,herepresentsthecountrywhen

hevisitsothercountriesandatimportantmeetings.

4.Powertopardonthosewhohavebeenconvictedbythecourts.Hecanordertheir

immediatereleaseortheirsentencesshouldbereduced.

5.Honoursbraveandhardworkingpeoplee.g.inMalawi,peoplereceivetheDistinguished

ServiceMedalbecausetheyofferedadistinguishedservicetothecountry.

6.Tosignbillsintolaw.

7.Togiveanopeningandclosingspeechofeachsessionofthenationalassembly.

8.Toappointcabinetministers

9.To appointambassadors to othercountries and receive ambassadors from other

countries.

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Thedefenceforces

Theyincludethearmyandotherinstitutionslikethenavyandthepolice.Thedefenceforcesof

MalawiconsistoftheMalawiArmy.

Rolesofthedefenceforces

1.Toupholdthesovereigntyandterritorialintegrityofitscountry.

2.Toguardagainstthreatstothesafetyofitscitizensbyforceofarms.

3.Toprovidetechnicalexpertiseandresourcesinthemaintenanceofimportantservicesin

timesofemergencylikenaturaldisasters.

4.Tosearchandrescueairoperations.

5.Toprovideexecutiveairtransportservice.

6.Toprovideairambulanceservice.

Systemsofgovernment

1.Theunitarysystem

Thisiswhenthecentralgovernmentisgivensuperiorpoweroverregionalorlocal

governments.Thecentralgovernmentcan delegatesomeauthorityto theregional

government.ExamplesofthisgovernmentarefoundinMalawi,SouthAfricaandKenya.

2.Thefederalsystem

Thisiswhenboththecentralandregionalgovernmentsaresupremeregardingsome

powers.

Mostfederalgovernmentsarecomposedofdifferentstateswhichmakeuponenation

andeachstate(region)holdssomeregionalpowers.Forinstance,aregioncanbegiven

thepowertomakepoliciesregardingtaxes,schools,hospitalservicesandotherlocal

servicesinitsarea.AnexampleofafederalsystemisfoundinIndia.

3.Aconfederation

Thisisasystem ofgovernmentwherebyseparateindependentnation-statesarelinked

togethertocooperateincertainwaysliketheEuropeanUnion.

4.Arepublic

Thisisasystem ofgovernmentinwhichthereisanelectedpresidentbutnokingor

queenlikeMalawi,KenyaandUSA.

5.Monarchy

Thisisasystem ofgovernmentthathasasupremerulersuchasakingorqueene.g.

Swaziland.

Election

Itisaprocessforchoosingofficers.

Itsfunctionistodecidethecontestwheretwoormorecandidatescompeteanditisaformal

procedureoffillingpublicoffices.

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Typesofelections

1.Generalelections–electionsheldthroughoutthecountrytomakeafinalchoiceforall

publicofficestobefilledatthattime.InMalawi,theyareheldeveryfiveyearstochoosea

presidentandmembersofparliament.

2.Primaryelections–amethodbywhichapoliticalpartychoosesitsnomineesforpublic

office.Theseareheldbeforegeneralelectionssothatvotersareinvolvedintheselection

ofpartycandidates.InMalawi,mostpoliticalpartieslimitprimaryelectionsto the

registeredpartymembers.

3.Run-offelections– itisheldwherenocandidatewinsaclearmajorityinageneral

election.Thesearenormallybetweentwocandidateswhohadmostvotes.

4.By-elections–theseareheldwhereapublicofficeisvacatedthroughdeath,retirement,

resignationorwhentheholderofthepublicofficehasjoinedanotherpoliticalparty.

5.Localelections–theseareconductedwhenpeoplewanttofilllocallevelofficeslikelocal

governmentoffices(choosingofcouncillors).Localgovernmentelectionsareconducted

everyfiveyearsinMalawi.

6.Areferendum –anelectioninwhichanissueissubmitteddirectlytoapopularvotee.g.

inMalawiitwasheldin1993todecidewhetherthecountryshouldhaveamulti-party

systemofgovernmentorcontinuewiththeonepartysystem.

7.Directelections–eachmemberoftheelectoratevotesdirectlyforthecandidateofhisor

herchoicee.g.generalandlocalelectionsinMalawi.

8.Indirectelection–thesearedecidedbyvoteofaspecialelectoralbodywhosemembers

aredirectlyelected.Thisisdonetolimitapopularrule.Forexample,inUSA,theyusean

indirectelectiontochoosethepresident.Theyuseaspecialelectoralcollege(acollective

nameforagroupofelectorsnominatedbypoliticalpartieswithinthestates)whomeetto

voteforpresidentandvicepresident.

Othertermsassociatedwithelections

1.Aballotpaperisthepieceofpaperofusedbythevoterinchoosinghisorherpreferred

candidate.

2.AnelectionofficeristhepersonwhoworksfortheElectoralCommissionandinclude

registrationofficersandpollingstationofficers.

3.Acandidateisapersonwhowishestorepresenttheconstituencyorward.

4.Aballotboxistheboxintowhichballotpapersareput.

5.Anindependentcandidateistheonewhoisnotsponsoredbyapoliticalparty.

6.Apollingstationistheplacewherepeoplegotocasttheirvotes.

7.Registrationreferstoaprocessbywhichaperson’snameisaddedtothevoter’sregister.

8.A constituencyisageographicalareawhichhasbeendeterminedbytheElectoral

CommissionandwhichwillberepresentedintheNationalAssemblybyoneMemberof

Parliament.

Theelectoralprocess

Theelectoralsystemhasdifferentcomponentsnamely:

1.Districting– aprocessbywhichexactgeographicalboundariesofconstituenciesor

wardsareestablished.Thisprocessdependsonthepopulationdensityofanarea,the

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geographicalpositionofanarea,easycommunicationandthewishesofpeople.In

Malawi,wardboundariesdonotcrosslocalauthorityboundaries.

2.Registration–identificationofaneligiblevoter.Apersonisonlyallowedtoregisteronce

intheareahe/sheresidesorwasbornorisemployedorcarriesonhisbusiness.During

the registration,a person is issued a voter’s registration certificate.A period of

registrationofvotersisdeterminedbytheelectoralcommissionandinMalawi,theperiod

isbetween14–21daysandthoseallowedtoregistershouldbe18yearsandabove.The

personshouldattaintheageof18yearsonorbeforethepollingday.

3.Qualifying foroffice and nomination ofcandidates – these are requirements for

candidatesandincludeage,residence,citizenshipandtermlimits.

InMalawi,apersonqualifiesasacandidateforthepositionofcouncillor,Memberof

Parliamentandpresidentif:

a.HeisaresidentofMalawianddoesnothaveaforeignorigin.

b.Hehasreachedtheageof21years.

c.HeisabletospeakandreadEnglishandisaregisteredvoter.

d.Hehasneverbeenconvictedbyacompetentcourtwithinthelastsevenyears.

e.HedoesnotbelongtotheDefenceForcesofMalawi,theMalawiPoliceServiceor

intheMalawiPrisonService.

Candidatesarenominatedatpartyconventions,individualconstituenciesorbynational

partyleadersorcanstandasindependentcandidates.

In Malawi,theelectoralcommission appoints a returning officerwho receivesthe

nominationsofcandidates.NominationsinMalawiarerequiredtobemadebyatleastten

registeredvotersintheconstituencyorwardinwhichapersonwouldliketobea

candidateandeachvotershouldsignonthenominationpaper.

4.Campaigning–itisdonetopublicizetheelectioninordertohaveaheavyturnout.Itis

alsodonetoappealtotheelectoratetovoteforacandidate.Campaignsaredoneusing

ralliesorsocialgatherings,themediaanddoortodoorcampaigns.Othersuseopinion

polls(privatepollstoknowhowpopulartheyare).Campaignisprohibitedatmilitaryunits,

policestations,publicinstitutionsandeducationalinstitutionsduringnormalworking

hours.

5.Settingupofpollingstations–establishingpollingstationsthroughouttheareawhere

theelectionsaretobeheld.Votingbooths(aplaceformakingthechoiceforacandidate

byavoter)areestablishedateverypollingstation.Politicalpartiesareallowedtomonitor

thevotingprocessandaresupposedtoinspecttheballotboxesandpollingstations

beforethebeginningofthecastingofvotes.

6.Thevoteandvotingprocess–votersuseballotpaperstovoteandtheyexercisetheright

tovoteatapollingstationlocatedattheregistrationcentrewheretheyregistered.Ifthis

isnotpossible,alternativearrangementshavetobemade.Pollingdaybeginsat6O’clock

inthemorningandclosesat6O’clockintheeveninginMalawi.

7.Tabulating,reportingandcertifyingresults–inmanycountries,votesarecountedby

electionofficialsatvariouspollingstationsofteninthepresenceofauthorizedparty

workers.Electionresultsandwinnersareoftencertifiedbypublicofficials.Wherethereis

nomajoritywinner,anotherelectionmustbeheldwithinaspecifiedperiod.TheElectoral

CommissionofMalawiisthebodythatcertifiesresults.

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8.Internationalobservations–verificationofvariousstagesbyinternationalorganizations,

foreigngovernmentsandpeopleandhelpto:

a.Verifyandmonitorregistrationofvoters.

b.Observethecampaigningprocess.

c.Verifyandmonitorthevotingprocess

d.Verifyandmonitorresultsoftheelection

e.Observeaccessanduseofthemedia.

9.Complaintsandappeals–anycomplaintsubmittedinwritingshallbeexaminedand

decidedonbythecommissionandifitisconfirmed,thecommissionshalltakeany

necessaryaction.An appealshalllie to thehigh courtagainsta decision ofthe

commission.Thiscourtmakesadecisiontoconfirmorrejecttheirregularity.

TheElectoralCommissionofMalawi

Thefirstcommissionwasestablishedin1993tolookaftertheelectionissuesinMalawiwhich

wasdissolvedin1998.Asecondonewasappointedin1998.Membersofthecommissionare

calledcommissionersandareappointedbythepresidentafterconsultingpoliticalparties

representedinthenationalassembly.IthasachairpersonwhoisnominatedbytheJudicial

ServiceCommissionandothercommissionerswhoarenotlessthansix.

Functionsanddutiesofthecommission

1.Demarcating constituencies and wards in which itsupervises the demarcation of

boundaries.

2.Registrationofvotersbydevisingandestablishingvoterregistersaswellaslookingat

theeligibilityofthevotersintermsofageandcitizenship.

3.Receivingnominationofcandidateswhowishtocontestinanelection.Thenominations

arereceivedbythereturning officerwhoadvisesthenominatedcandidateofany

problemsinthenominationpaper.

4.Monitoring campaign news and broadcasts to ensure equalnews coverage of

campaigningbyallcandidates.

5.Establishingandoperatingpollingstationsaswellasappointingpollingstationofficers

tosuperviseproceedingsatthepollingstation.

6.Print,distributeandtakechargeofballotpapersandtoapproveaswellasbuyballot

boxes.

7.Determiningresultsbydeclaringthewinneroftheelection.

8.Establishingsecurityconditionsnecessaryfortheconductofeveryelection.

9.Promotepublicawarenessofelectoralmattersthroughthemediaandothermeans.

Roleofvoters

1.Togiveaccurateinformationduringregistration.

2.Toregisterinoneareaonly.

3.Theyshouldnotinciteviolenceduringanelection.

TheCentralGovernment

Itiscomposedofthreebranchesnamely:

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1.TheLegislativeBodyortheLegislature–itconsistsofthepresidentandmembersof

parliament.

Ithasthefollowingfunction:

a.Makeslawsofthecountry

b.Approvesannualgovernmentexpenditurebeforeitisimplemented.

c.Debatesmattersofnationalimportancee.g.povertyalleviationandaccountability

ofgovernment.

d.Examinesgovernmentactionsonbehalfofcitizens.

2.TheExecutive–itiscomposedofthepresidentastheheadandcabinetministers.

Ithasthefollowingfunctions:

a.Initiationofpolicies(governmentplans)andimplementationofalllawsofthe

country.

b.MakestreatiesonbehalfofMalawians.

c.Providesvariousservicese.g.securitythroughtheministryofdefence,education

throughtheministryofeducationandhealththroughtheministryofhealth.

3.TheJudiciary–itiscomposedoflaw courts,thechiefjustice,judgesofthesupreme

courtofappeal,highcourtjudges,theregistrarofthehighcourtandmagistrates.

Itinterpretsandapplieslawsofthenationandmakessurethatlawsareobeyed.

Typesofcourtsinclude:

a.TheSupremeCourt–thisisthehighestinthecountryandinMalawiitiscalledthe

SupremeCourtofAppeal.Itiscomposedofthreehighcourtjudgesnoneofwhom

tookpartinthecaseappealedagainst.

b.TheHighCourt–secondhighestcourtandinMalawiitiscalledtheHighCourtof

Malawi.ItconsistsoftheChiefJusticeandotherjusticesnotlessthantwo.It

decidesoncasesbroughttoitandalsohearsappealsfrom lowercourtscalled

magistrates.

c.Thesubordinatecourts–thesearebelowtheHighCourtandincludemagistrate

courtsandindustrialrelationscourts(dealswithlabourdisputesandissuesrelated

toemployment).

Sourcesofrevenueforcentralgovernment

1.Incometaxfromindividualsandcompaniese.g.PayAsYouEarn(PAYE).

2.Customsandexcisedutywhichismoneypaidforimportedgoods.

3.Licencesanddutieswhicharemoneypaidwhenapersonwantstoobtainadriving

licenceaswellasdeathduties(paidonpropertyleftbyadeceasedperson).

4.Rentspaidbycivilservantswhooccupygovernmenthouses.

5.Miscellaneousdepartmentalreceiptswhichincludesherifffees,paymentofappealed

casesandothers.

6.Loansfrombanksandotherlendinginstitutionsfromhomeorabroad.

7.Donoraidfromothercountriesandinternationalorganizations.

8.Commercialactivitiesthroughowningcompanies,privatizationorsharesindifferent

countries.

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Localgovernment

Itiswhenpower,authorityandresponsibilitiesofthecentralgovernmentaretransferredtolower

andmorelocallevelsfordecisionmaking.Thistransferofpowerfromthecentralgovernmentto

localgovernmentiscalleddecentralisation.

Localgovernmentinstitutions

1.Districtassembliese.g.Ntchisi,ChitipaandNsanje.

2.Townassembliese.g.Karonga,LiwondeandDedza.

3.Municipalassembliese.g.Kasungu.

4.Cityassembliese.g.Blantyre,LilongweandMzuzu.

Somedistrictshavebothadistrictandacityassemblywhileothershavebothdistrictand

municipalassembliesbuteachassemblyisindependent.

Compositionofanassembly

1.Councillorswhoareelectedinwardsandarevotingmembersonlocalgovernmentissues.

2.TraditionalAuthoritiesandSubTraditionalAuthoritieswhoarenon-votingmembers.

3.Membersofparliamentthatfallwithinthelocalgovernmentareaasnon-votingmembers.

4.Fivepeopleasnon-votingmemberstolookintotheinterestsofsomegroupse.g.women,

theyouthandthephysicallychallenged.

5.TheChiefExecutivewhoisanon-votingmember.

Assemblymembersappointthechairpersonandthevicechairpersonontheirfirstmeetingwho

serveforfiveyears.Thechairpersonandthevicechairpersonofthecityandmunicipal

assembliesarecalledthemayoranddeputymayorrespectively.Theassemblyhasseveral

committeessuchasfinance,development,education,healthandsanitation,appointmentsand

disciplinary.

Functionsoflocalassemblies

1.Promoting publichealth through theprovision ofclean and health environmentby

inspectingfood,drinks,refuse,pestsandstreets.

2.Providingclinicalhealthservicesbymanagingclinics,healthcentresanddispensariesas

wellasprovidinghealtheducationservices.

3.Environmentalmanagementbylookingafterforestryreserves,treenurseries,landscapes,

zoosanddams.

4.Promoting economic developmentthrough town planning,business licensing and

managingmarketsandmarketbuildings.

5.Educationthroughprovisionofpublicschools,schoolbursariesandlibraries.

6.Providingforroadsandstreetsbyconstructingandmaintainingthem.

7.Emergencyservicesbymaintainingandmanagingambulanceandfireservices.

8.Providingpublicamenitieswhichincludeparks,recreationalgrounds,botanicalgardens,

museums,historical,culturalandscientificplaces.

Sourcesofrevenueoflocalauthorities(governments)

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1.Governmentgrantsfromthecentralgovernment.

2.Producecess(taxpaidbythosewhoselltheirproduceatlocalassemblymarkets)

3.Licencesfromthosewhooperatebusinessese.g.bottlestores.

4.Occupationlicencesandrentsthroughownershipofbuildings,shopsandland.

5.Ratespaidbyownersofbuildings,plotsinmunicipalitiesandtowns.

6.Feescollectedfrompeoplewhousemuseumsandcarparkingareas.

7.Servicechargesforemptyingseptictanks,fireandambulanceservices.

8.Profitandinterestfrombusinessessuchasrestaurantsandresthouses.

9.Loansfromthebanksandcentralgovernment.

Statutorycorporations

Thesearestateenterprisesorparastatalsbyanactofparliamente.g.AgriculturalDevelopment

andMarketingCorporation(ADMARC),BlantyreWaterBoard,MalawiInstituteofEducationand

MalawiDevelopmentCorporation.

Functionsofsomestatutorycorporations

1.ElectricitySupplyCommissionofMalawi

a.Buildingandmaintainingpowerplants.

b.Distributingandsupplyingelectricity.

c.Investigatingneworadditionalfacilitiesforsupplyingelectricity.

2.MalawiDevelopmentCorporation

a.Todevelopagricultural,commercial,industrialandmineralresources.

b.To formulate projects forthe promotion orexpansion ofnew orexisting

enterprises.

c.TotraincitizensofMalawihowtomanageandexpandaproject.

d.Toprovideloans.

e.Toinvestmoneyinvariousenterprises.

3.ExportPromotionCouncil

a.Topromotetheexportofagriculturalproducts.

b.Tomakeavailableexportersinformationandstatisticsontheexportersmarket.

c.Organizeandoperatetradefairsorganizedabroad.

d.Arrangeforrepresentationbyexhibitorsattradefairsorganizedabroad.

4.SmallHolderSugarAuthority,SmallHolderCoffeeAuthorityandSmallHolderTea

Authority

a.Promotesugar,coffeeandteaschemes.

b.Tocontrolandsupervisethegrowingoftea,coffeeandsugar.

c.Toprovidetrainingforthegrowers.

d.Toorganizetransportforcollectionofcropsformarketing.

e.Togivecreditandrecovermoneybydeductingfromgoodssales.

5.MalawiNationalLibraryService

a.Topromote,establish,equip,manageandmaintainlibrariesinMalawi

Sourcesofrevenueforstatutorycorporations

1.LoansfrominstitutionsandorganizationswithinandoutsideMalawi.

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2.Billsandsubscriptionspaidbycustomersandclients.

3.Governmentgrantsanddonationsfrominternationalinstitutions

4.Rentsandroyaltiesfromthesaleoftheirproperties.

5.Interestsfrombankaccounts

Goodgovernance

Thisistheexerciseofpolitical,economicandadministrativeauthorityeffectively,efficientlyand

fairly.

Principlesofgoodgovernance

1.Accountability– itmeansthatpoliticiansshouldbeabletoexplainandjustifytheir

actionsanddecisionstothecitizensoftheircountry.Thisisimportantwhenitcomesto

financialdealingssincepeoplehaveeveryrighttoknowhowmoneyisspent.

2.Transparency–thismeansthatgovernmentbusinessshouldbeconductedopenly.The

governmentshould open governmentrecords forinspections and also explain its

decisionsinmattersofnationalimportance.

3.Participation–thismeanspublicparticipationindecisionmakingdirectlyorindirectly

throughmembersofparliament.

4.Ruleoflaw–thismeansthatnobodyisabovethelawsoeveryonemustbegivenequal

punishmentforequaloffencesregardlessoftheirstatus.

5.Separationofpowers–itmeansthatthethreebranchesofgovernmentshouldhave

separatefunctions.

Institutionsthatpromotegoodgovernance

1.TheLegislature–itpromotestheruleoflawbyensuringthatlawsarefair.

2.The Judiciary– itinterprets,protectsand enforcesalllawsofthe countryin an

independentandimpartialmanner.

3.TheElectoralCommission–ensuresindependentandtransparentelectionsofpeopleto

publicoffices.

4.Auditoffices– presentfinancialstatementsofdifferentdepartmentsandcompanies

independentlytothemanagementorboardofdirectors.

5.Humanrightsorganizationsmakesurethatnationallawsandinternationallyrecognized

conventionsareupheld.

6.Theofficeoftheombudsman–helpstopromotetheruleoflawbyinvestigatingcasesof

injustice.

7.TheAnti-CorruptionBureau–helpstopromotetheruleoflawbyinvestigatingcorruption

casesandalsopromotesaccountability.

8.Civilsocietyorganizationsprovidechecksandbalancesongovernmentpowerandalso

monitorsocialabuses.

9.Themediapromotestransparencyandaccountabilitybyinformingthepublicgovernment

actionsanddecisions.

TOPIC6:HUMANRIGHTS

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Specialgroups

Thesearepeoplewhosharecertaincharacteristicswhicharebiological,socialandothers.

Theseareconsideredasspecialgroupsbecausethenatureoftheircharacteristicsrequires

specialconsiderationwhichtheywouldbedeniediftheyweretreatedalongwithothergroupsof

people.

Peoplecanbeidentifiedasbelongingtoaspecialgroupbylookingatthefollowing:

 Biologicalmake-up

 Legalstatusascitizense.g.prisoners

 Socialstatussuchasthedisabled

 Geographicallocationsuchasrefugees

 Culturesuchaspeoplewhobelongtoaparticularethnicorracialgroup

 Professionalsuchasmigrantworker

Typesofspecialgroups

1.Womenandgirls–theyareconsideredasaspecialgroupbecauseofdifferentbiases

thatarebasedonsocialexpectationsoftheirroles,statusandtheirexistence.Theyface

thefollowingabuses:

a.Domesticviolencewhichcanbephysicallyorsexuallye.g.beatingsandrape.

b.Forcedearlymarriagesespeciallygirlsthatliveinruralareasduetopovertyand

traditions.

c.Inabilitytoacquireorretainpropertybecauseoftraditions.However,Malawians

arenotfacingalotofproblemsduetotheWillsandInheritanceAct.

d.Sexualharassmentintheworkplaceandschoolinform ofjokes,teasing,rapeon

thewaytoandfromschoolandothers.

e.Inequalityineconomicopportunitiesbecausethesocietyviewsmalesascapable.

f.Inadequateeducationbecausesomesocietiesdonotconsiderthegirlchildora

womanassomeonewhoneedsthesameeducationasaboyoraman.

2.Children–theUnitedNationsCovenantontheRightsoftheChild(CRC)definesachildas

someonewhoisbelow theageof18whiletheMalawianConstitutionrecognizesany

personundertheageof16yearsasachild.Childrenareconsideredasaspecialgroup

becausetheyaredependent,havelow levelofphysical,emotionalandsocialmaturity

whichmightleadtodifferentabusesbyadults.

Someoftheformsofabusesfacedbyachildinclude:

a.Sexualexploitationbecauseadultsenticechildrenwithmoneyandothereconomic

opportunitiestohavesexwiththem.

b.Childlabourbyworkinginhazardousenvironmentandbeinggiventasksnot

matchingtheirage.

c.Victimsofdivorceandorphanageduetotheseparationanddeathofparentsthat

makethemtobehelpless.

d.Theyarenotallowedtomakedecisionsinsomesocietiesduetotheirageand

maturity.

3.Disabledpeople–theyfacethefollowingabuses:

a.Inequalityinemploymentopportunitiesbecausemostemployersview disabled

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peopleaseconomicallyunproductive,riskyandofferingnon-competitiveskills.

b.Inequalityineducationbecausetheyareperceivedasacademicallyincompetent.

c.Incapableofgettingmarriedbecauseoftheirbiologicalcharacteristics.

d.Biased priorities in a numberofsituations e.g.during wars,they mightbe

evacuatedafterthenormalpeoplehavebeenevacuated.

4.Refugees–theyfacethefollowingabuses:

a.Forcedlabourwheretheyareemployedandreceivepaymentnotmatchingtheir

skills.

b.Forcedmarriagesinordertobeacceptedintothehostcountry.

c.Forcednationalitiesinordertoconcealtheirnationalityforthegainofthehost

citizeninvolved.

d.Forcedallegiances(loyalty)especiallyinwarsituationinordertobeprotectedfrom

variousabuses.

e.Pooreducation and healthcare services since the hosts view refugees as

temporaryresidentshenceshouldnotreceiveadequateeducationandhealthcare.

5.Prisonersoraccusedpeople–theyareexposedtothefollowingformsofabuse:

a.Starvationwhichisfailingtobeprovidedwithenoughandnutritiousfood.

b.Poorhealthfacilitiesasawayofpunishingprisoners.

c.Nocontactwithrelativesandlegalservices(lawyers)becausetheyareviewedas

lesshuman.

d.Sexualabusebyfellowinmatesandprison/policeofficers.

6.Workers–theyfacethefollowingabuses:

a.Lowwageswheretheygetmoneywhichisnotmatchingtheirskills.

b.Hazardousworkenvironmentsespeciallythoseworking in themanufacturing

industry.

c.Lackoflegalmechanismstorepresentworkers’rightssuchasbeingprohibitedto

joinunionsorassociationsfearingarrogance,lowproductivityandahigherwage

bill.

d.Unfairdismissalwhichmaketheworkersnottogetanyterminalbenefits.

Violationsofrightsofspecialgroups

1.Genocide–thisisthedeliberatekillingalargegroupofpeople.Thisisusuallydirected

againsttheminoritygroupse.g.genocideoftheJewsinNazioccupiedGermanyin1930s

and1940s,killingsofonemillioneducatedcitydwellersbytheKhmerRougeregionin

Cambodiainthe1970saswellaskillingofaboutonemillionTutsisbytheHutuin

Rwandain1994.

2.ChildLabour–thisiswhenachildhastoworkeitherfull-timeorpart-timebutdonotgo

schools.Itisestimatedthatover100millionchildrenbetweentheageof10and14work

full-timeorpart-timewithmostofthem workinginAsiae.g.childreninChinaworkfor17

hourstoproducetoysfortheAmericanownedMcDonalds.

3.Discrimination– untilthelate1960stherewasfrequentdiscriminationagainstblack

peopleintheUnitedStatesofAmericaespeciallyinthesouthernstates.

4.Forcedprostitution–thisiswhengirlsareenticedintothecitiesandforcedtobecome

prostitutes.Thegirlsarecollectedbyinternationalcriminalsyndicates(groupofpeople

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thatworktogethertoachieveacertaingoal).ForcedprostitutioniscommoninAsia

whereitisestimatedthatoveronemillionchildrenareinvolvedinthesextrade.The

syndicatesalsoworkinEasternEuropeandAfricawhosendthegirlstoWesternEurope

toworkasprostitutes.Inaddition,thereareover300,000childprostitutesinthestreetsof

UnitedStatesofAmerica.

5.Tortureofprisoners–thisiscommoninmanycountriesandtakemanyformssuchas

beatings,electricshocks,whipping,deprivingtheprisonerofsleepandfood,suspension

bythewristsorankles,deaththreatsandthreatsofrape.Tortureiscommonlydoneto

women,youngpeopleandtheelderly.ItiscommoninEgyptianpolicestationsand

detentioncentres.

6.Slavery–itwascommonthreehundredyearsagowhenmanyAfricansweretakenas

slavestoworkintheislandsofCaribbeanandplantationsofNorthAmerica.Itis

estimatedthat27millionpeopleintheworldtodayareforcedtoworkbutarenotpaidor

getlowwages.Thisistheformofslavery.Modernslaveryisdonethroughbondedlabour.

Ithappenswhenapersontakesoutaloanlikeabottleofmedicineandpaysofftheloan

bybeingforcedtoworkforalongtime.Theyreceivefoodandshelterbutnotpayment.

7.Femalegenitalmutilationorfemalecircumcision–itinvolvesthepartialortotalremoval

ofexternalfemaleorgans.Itmaybeperformed atanyagebutmostvictimsare

adolescents.Itisdonetoreducesexualpleasure,toencouragegirlstobefaithfultotheir

husbands,to mark the transition to womanhood and to increase fertility.Itis

disadvantageousbecauseitaffectstheirabilitytohavetheirmentalhealthandalso

seriouslydamagesthefemalesexualorgans.ItiscommoninAfrica

Typesofhumanrights

1.Civilandpoliticalrights–theseareaimedatsafeguardingcivilandpoliticalparticipation

foreveryone.Theyarealsocalledfirstgenerationofhumanrightsbecausetheearliest

existingrightsdocumentscontainedmostlysuchrights.

Examplesinclude:

 Therighttoanationality

 Therighttoprivacy

 Freedomofthought

 Freedomofexpression

 Freedomofassociation

 Therighttoinformation

 Therightnottobedeprivedofliberty

2.Economic,socialandculturalrights– theyemphasizesocio-economicandcultural

developmentaswellassecurityofeveryperson.Theyarealsocalledsecondgeneration

ofhumanrightsbecausetheycameintoeffectafterthecivilandpoliticalrights.

Examplesinclude:

 Therighttoadequatestandardofliving

 Therighttoenjoyonesculture

 Therighttotheminimumfairwage

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 Therighttoenjoythehighestattainablestandardofhealth

 Therighttoenjoythebenefitsofscientificprogressanditsapplications.

3.Solidarityorinterdependencehumanrights–theseareaimedatfosteringcooperation

andhelpingeachother.Theyarealsocalledthirdgenerationofhumanrightsbecause

theycameintoeffectaftertheothertwogroups.

Examplesinclude:

 Therighttoformandjointradeunionsfortheprotectionofinterests

 Therighttostrikeorengageinpeacefuldemonstration

 Therightoftradeunionstoestablishnationalfederationsandtojoininternational

tradeunions

 Therightoftradeunionstofunctionfreely

Internationallegalinstrumentsforpromotingandprotectingspecialgroups’humanrights

1.A Treaty– aninternationalagreementbetweentwoormoregovernmentse.g.The

Southern African DevelopmentCommunity (SADC)and The North Atlantic Treaty

Organization(NATO).

2.AConvention–atreatyintendedtobindandbeobservedbymanycountriese.g.The

UnitedNations’InternationalCovenantonCivilandPoliticalRights.

3.AProtocol-anadditionalagreementintendedtobepartofatreatythatisalreadyinforce

e.g.AdditionalProtocoltotheInternationalCovenantonCivilandPoliticalRights.

4.ADeclaration–asetofprinciplesdeclaredasdesiredstandardsforstatesandother

partiesbutnotintendedtobebindinge.g.theDeclarationontheRightsoftheChild.

5.ARecommendation–asetofstandardssuggestedtobefollowedbystatesinorderto

realize agreed standards or those in convention e.g.the InternationalLabour

Organization’s(ILO)Recommendationno.19ontheTerminationofEmployment.

Internationalinterventionstoprotecthumanrightsofspecialgroups

1.TheConventionontheRightsofaChild(CRC)–itwasadoptedbytheGeneralAssembly

oftheUnitedNationson20

November,1989andrecognizesanypersonundertheageof

18asachild.SomeofthespecialhumanrightsintheCRCinclude:

 Therighttoaname

 Therighttoanationality

 Therighttoknowandberaisedbyparents

 Therighttoreceivereasonablemaintenancebyparents

 Therighttobeprotectedfrom exploitationandfrom treatmentorpunishmentthat

may:behazardous,interferewiththechild’seducationandbeharmfultothechild’s

healthortohisphysical,mentalandspiritualdevelopment.

2.ConventionontheEliminationofallformsofDiscriminationAgainstWomen(CEDAW)-it

wasadoptedandratifiedbytheGeneralAssemblyinDecember,1979.Itwentintoforce

on3

September,1981.

CEDAWincludesthefollowingrights:

 Therighttomarriage

 Therighttoregulatefertility

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 Therighttoinheritanceofproperty

 Therighttoequalemploymentandpay

 Therighttohaveaccesstoequaleconomicopportunities

 Therighttobeprotectedfrom allformsofabuse,cruelty,discriminationand

exploitation.

3.Forum forAfricanWomenEducationalists(FAWE)–itwassetupin1992.Itconsistsof

influentialwomen policy-makers in African countries e.g.ministers ofeducation,

universityvicechancellorsandseniorpolicy-makers.Itisaimedatimprovinggirls’

participationineducation.MostcountrieshavenationalchaptersofFAWE.

Institutionsormeasuresthatdealwithhumanrightsforspecialgroups

1.Internationallevel

a.AmnestyInternational– anindependentinternationalhumanrightswatchdog

aimedatinvestigatingandreportinghumanrightsviolations.Ithasbothregional

andlocalrepresentativesfromallmembercountries.

b.InternationalRedCross–ithelpspeoplesufferingduetowar,floods,outbreaksof

diseasesandothers.InMuslim countrieswheretheimportanceofthecrossisnot

recognized,itiscalledtheInternationalRedCrescent.

c.InternationalCourtofJustice–oneoftheorgansoftheUnitedNationsaimedat

tryingoutinternationalhumanrightsviolations.Itdealswithcasessuchasborder

disputes,occupationofanother’sterritoryandinternationalcriminals.Itislocated

intheHague,Netherlandsandhasrepresentativesfrom allmembersoftheUnited

Nations.

d.Specialtribunalsorspeciallawcourts–sinceitsestablishment,theUnitedNations

SecurityCouncilhasestablishedvariousspecialtribunalstodealwithsuspected

violationsofthefour1949Genevaconventions.Examplesofthespecialtribunals

include:

i.TheInternationalcriminaltribunalfortheformerYugoslaviawhichwas

establishedinFebruary,1993.Itwasestablishedtodealwithviolations

committedintheformerYugoslaviasince1991andincludegenocide.

ii.Theinternationaltribunalagainstthe1991Rwandangenocidewhichwas

setupin1998.Itwasestablishedtohuntdown,captureandtryperpetrators

oftheRwandangenocide.ItisbasedinArusha,Tanzania.

iii.TheSouthAfricanTruthandReconciliationCommissionwhichwassetup

soonaftertheendofapartheid(Politicalsystem thatexistedinSouthAfrica

inwhichwhitepeoplehadmorepoliticalrightsandpowerthantheblacks)in

1993.Itwasestablishedtohearcasesofhumanrightsviolationsduringthe

apartheidera.Itsmainobjectivewastoestablishreconciliationbetweenthe

blacksandthewhites.

e.HumanRightsWatch–itisbasedinNewYorkintheUnitedStatesofAmerica.It

wasformedin1988from mergingtwopreviousorganizationsnamely:Helsinki

WatchwhichwassetuptomonitorabusesintheOldSovietUnionandAmericas

WatchwhichwassetuptomonitorabusesinCentralAmerica.Someoftheworkof

HRWinclude:

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i.Callingforatreatytobantheuseofchildsoldiers.

ii.Campaigningagainsttheuseoflandminesinthe1990s.

iii.CampaignedforformerYugoslavialeaderstobetriedforwarcrimesinan

internationalcourt.

f.UnitedNationsHighCommissionforRefugees(UNHCR)–itwassetupin1951by

theGeneralAssemblyoftheUnitedNationstotakeavarietyofactionstohelpthe

refugees.

2.Locallevel

a.TheLawCommission

b.TheOmbudsman

c.Anti-CorruptionBureau

d.HumanRightsOrganizations

e.TheMalawiHumanRightsResourceCentre

TOPIC7:CONFLICTRESOLUTION

Aconflictisadisagreementbetweenindividualsorgroupsofpeopleoverapoint.

Internationalconflictsaredisagreementsbetweencountriesorwithincountriesbutrequire

interventionoftheinternationalcommunity.

Causesofinternationalconflicts

1.Religiousdifferenceswhicharedisagreementsbetweentworeligiousgroups.Major

conflictonreligioniscurrentlybetweenMuslimsandChristiansallovertheworldand

anotheroneisintheMiddleEastbetweentheIsraelisandthePalestinianswhereone

groupclaimssovereigntyoverJerusalem.

2.Ethnicdifferencescausedbytheneedofonegrouptobesuperiorovertheothere.g.in

RwandabetweentheHutusandTutsis.

3.Politicaldifferencesdonebetweentwopoliticalpartiesusuallytheoppositionandthe

rulingpartye.g.inZimbabwebetweenZANU-PFandtheMovementforDemocratic

Change(MDC).

4.Culturaldifferencesareduetodifferentculturalbackgroundse.g.inAfricawherethe

AfricansrejectedtheimpositionofWesternEuropeanculturaltraditionsonthem.

5.Individuallustforpowerwherepeople need to accumulatewealth and powerfor

themselves.

6.Boundariescauseconflictswhereonecountryoccupiestheterritoryoftheothere.g.in

AfricabetweenEthiopiaandEritrea.

Effectsofinternationalconflictondevelopment

1.Migrationofpeoplewhichisdisplacementofpeopleduetocivilwarsintheircountry.

2.Famine becausea countryatwardoes nothaveenough timeto concentrate on

developmentactivitieslikeagriculture.

3.Lowindustrialdevelopment1sincethegovernment’spriorityisontheimportationofarms

ratherthanmanufacturingessentialgoods.

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4.Lowliteracyratesespeciallytotherefugeeswhoareonlyprovidedwithbasiceducation

byinternationalhumanrightsagencies.

5.Creationofaviolentsocietybecauseyouthsbroughtupinconflictareasknownothing

apartfromaviolentsociety.

6.Widowhoodandorphanageduetothedeathofpeopleeitherassoldiersorcivilians.

7.Limitationofhumanrightssincecountriesexperiencingconflictspaylessattentionto

humanrights.

8.Destructionofproperty.

9.Deathsofpeople.

Conflictresolution

Thisiswhenthetwoconflictingpartiesreconcilethroughpeacefulmeansorinterventionbythe

thirdparty.

Themainstrategyforresolvinginternationalconflictsisbypeacefulnegotiationwhichfollows

principlesofcontactanddialogue.

Otherstrategiesincludeuseofadvocates,useofcourts,arbitrators(useofathirdparty),useof

sanctions(embargo)anduseofpeacekeepingforces.

Internationalorgansfordealingwithinternationalconflicts

1.TheUnitedNationsOrganizationthroughitsspecialorgancalledtheSecurityCouncil.

2.LeagueofNationscomposedof63countrieswhenitwasformedin1920.

3.InternationalcourtofJusticewithitsheadquartersattheHague,Netherlands.

4.Specialtribunals

Regionalorgansthatassistinconflictresolution

1.Southern African DevelopmentCommunity(SADC)which addresses problems within

SouthernAfrica.

2.EconomicCommunityofWestAfricanStates(ECOWAS)whichaddresseseconomic

issuesintheregion.

3.NorthAtlanticTreatyOrganization(NATO)whichrespondstomilitaryconflictswithinthe

region.

4.TheEuropeanUnion(EU)looksateconomicissuesinWesternEurope.

5.TheNorthAtlanticFreeTradeAgreement(NAFTA)whichisagroupingoftheUSA,

CanadaandMexicotoaddresstradeandeconomicissues.

Internationalpeaceinitiatives

1.TheTreatyofVersaillesandtheLeagueofNations–itwasheldinParis.Germanyand

otherdefeatednationswerenotallowedtositattheconferencewhileBritain,France,

ItalyandtheUnitedStatesdominatedtheconference.Harshtermswereimposedon

Germanysuchasgivingupsomeofitsterritoriesandgettingridofitsweapons.During

theSecondWorldWar,leadersofthecountrythatwerefightingGermanyandJapan

agreedto establishanew internationalpeacekeepingorganizationtoreplacethe

LeagueofNations.

2.PeaceinitiativesintheMiddleEast–thefirstonewasheldin1978whentheUnited

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Statestooktheleadtoendconflict.LeadersofIsraelandEgyptsignedtheCampDavid

AccordwhichwasanimportantsteptowardspeacewhenEgyptrecognizedIsraelasa

countryforthefirsttime.TheothersteptakentowardspeaceintheMiddleEastwasin

1993 when Israeland the Palestinian Liberation Organization (PLO)signed the

DeclarationofPrinciplesinwhichtheyrecognizedeachother’srighttoexist.

3.A peaceinitiativeintheDRC – warbrokeoutin1998andinvolvedsevenAfrican

countries.In1999,theUNpressurizedthewarringsidestohaveaceasefireandsigned

theLusakaPeaceAccordwhichaimedtoendwarpermanently.

Effectivenessofthepeaceinitiatives

Thesearenotusuallysuccessful.Forinstance,aftertheLusakaPeaceAccordin1999,the

ceasefirewasbrokenmanytimes.Inaddition,organizationsliketheUN’ssanctionson

conflictingsidesdonothaverequiredeffect.

Internationalorganizationshavebeenmoresuccessfulintheirpeaceinitiativesintheformer

Yugoslaviathathavepreventedfurtherconflicts.

RefugeecrisisinAfricaandtheworld

1.Angola–thegovernmentwasfightingarebelgroupcalledUNITAsince1975.Many

peoplebecamerefugeesin Zambia,Tanzania,Namibia,South Africa,Portugaland

Zimbabwe.

2.DemocraticRepublicofCongo–theconflictwasbetweenthegovernmentandtherebels.

OthercountrieswereinvolvedsuchasUgandaandRwandathatsupportedrebelswhile

Zimbabwe,AngolaandNamibiasupportedthegovernment.Peoplefrom DRCfledtothe

GreatLakesRegioninvolvingUganda,Tanzania,Zambia,MalawiandCentralAfrican

Republic.

3.Somalia–therewasnocentralgovernmentsince1979solifewasdisorganizedwith

differentfactions controlling resources.ManySomalis havefled to Kenya,Eritrea,

Ethiopia,TanzaniaandWesternEurope.

4.Sudan–SudanPeople’sLiberationArmy(SPLA)hasbeenfightingforindependenceof

SouthernSudanfrom governmentruleforoverthirtyyears.Refugeesareconcentratedin

Uganda,Ethiopia,ChadandCentralAfricanRepublic.

5.SierraLeone,LiberiaandGuinea–RevolutionaryUnitedFront(RUF),arebelmovement

hasbeeninconflictwithcurrentgovernmentinSierraLeonetoreplaceit.Liberiais

fightingrebelsfrom SierraLeoneandGuineawhileGuineaisfightingrebelscomingfrom

Liberia.RefugeesareconcentratedinNigeria,Ghana,GambiaandSenegal.

6.SriLanka–LiberationTigersofTamilEeelam (LTTE)alsoknownasTamilTigershave

beenfightingsince1983fortheindependenceoftheminorityTamilstateinNESriLanka.

RefugeesareconcentratedinIndia,PakistanandMalaysia.

7.Yugoslavia–civilconflictsinvolveactsofgenocidewithrefugeesconcentratedinCzech

Republic,Germany,RussiaandCentralEurope.

8.Afghanistan– FightingisbetweenTalibanforcesandtheNorthernAlliancefighters

leadingtotwomillionrefugeesinPakistan.

9.Middle East– Itis between Israelis and Palestinians with Palestinian refugees

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concentratedinLebanon,Syria,JordanandWesterncountries.

Impactofrefugeesintheworld

1.Disintegrationoffamiliessincepeoplemayleavetheirfamiliesbehindormaylosefamily

members.

2.Pressureonlandresourcesforsettlement,buildingandothersocialfacilities.

3.Pressureonsocialservicessincerefugeesneedmedicalattention,education,markets

whichmaybeinadequate.

4.Pressureonfoodresourcesbecausethesuppliedfoodmaynotbeadequatetomeetthe

refugeesdailyneeds.

5.Lossofculturalidentitybecausetherefugeesarefarfrom theiroriginalhomessothey

cannoteattheirtraditionalfood,cannotconductcertaintraditionsandrituals.

6.Cross-bordercriminalactivitiesbecausethosefleeingtheircountriesmaycarryalotof

armswhichmaybeusedforcommittingarmedrobberiesinthehostcountry.Other

criminalactivitiesincludedrugtrafficking,smugglingoffood,sugarandfuel.

7.Lossofhumanresourcesbecauserefugeeswhofleetheircountrycouldcontribute

positivelytothedevelopmentofthenation.

8.Infectiousdiseasesbecauserefugeesmaycarrywiththem infectiousdiseasessuchas

malaria,tuberculosis,cholera,EbolaandHIV/AIDS.

Conventionsfortheprotectionofspecialgroups

1.The1929GenevaConventiononthetreatmentofPrisonersofWarsignedby47nations.

Prisonersofwarareprotectedinthefollowingways:

a.Nottobetorturedtorevealtheiridentityotherthanmilitaryrankandnumber.

b.Entitledtoadequatefoodandmedicalcare.

c.Toreceivelettersandparcels

d.Campstobeopenforinspection

2. The1949Conventionratifiedbymanycountrieswhichlaiddownhumanetreatmentof

prisonersduringwarandstressedthattheyshouldbefreedassoonaswarendedand

allowedtoreturntotheircountries.

3.TheRefugeeConventiondrawnupin1951andgaverefugeesthefollowingrights:

a.Rightnottobeforciblyreturnedtotheircountrywheretherefugeehasfearof

persecution.

b.Righttowork

c.Righttoeducation

d.Righttopublicreliefandassistance

e.Freedomofreligion

f.Freeaccesstocourts

g.Freedomofmovement

h.Righttobeissuedidentityandtraveldocuments

Challengesfacedinimplementationofconventions

1.Shortageofresourcessuchasfinancial,humanandmaterial.

2.Lackofcooperationfrom governmentssincesomegovernmentofficialsmayreact

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negativelytoreportsofhumanrightsviolationsanddenythatsuchactsexist.

3.Corruptionsincetheviolatorsmaypayhugesumsofmoneytoorgansthatdealwith

humanrightssothattheyareprotected.

4.Socialattitudesmakethesocietyviewsomespecialgroupswithanegativeattitude.For

instance,thedisabledmaybeviewedasthecondemned,prisonersviewedasbeasts

therefore,donotneedaspecialattention.

5.Lackofciviceducationontherightsofspecialgroupsandothermembersofthesociety.

TOPIC8:SOCIALJUSTICE

Socialjusticeiswheneveryoneinthesocietyistreatedfairlyandtheirrightsarerespectedby

institutionssuchasthegovernment,thepoliceandthelawcourts.

Principlesofsocialjustice

AccordingtotheWomenandLaw inSouthernAfrica(2000),therearethreemainprinciples

namely:

1.Likecasestobetreatedalikewhichmeanspeopleofequalcapacitiesareentitledtobe

treatedalikeregardlessoftheirsocialstatus,religion,home,race,tribe,sexandage.

2.Differentcasestobetreateddifferentlywhichmeanswherethereareclearlymarked

differencesinvolvingevolvingcapacitiesbetweenpeoplethenthosedifferencesmustbe

takenintoconsiderationwhenadministeringjustice.E.g.achildbroughtbeforealaw

courtcannotbetriedinthesamewayasanadultoffenderbecausethetwoaredifferent.

3.Rulesofnaturaljusticeshouldbefollowedwhichmeanstheuseofsameprinciplesof

naturaljusticeallovertheworldsuchasbeingconsideredasinnocentuntilprovenguilty

bythecourtoflaw.

Examplesofsocialjusticeintheschoolandthecommunity

1.Fairness

2.Justice

3.Respectofhumanrights

4.Favourablepunishmentstoall

5.Equaltreatmenttoall

6.Openness

7.Equalityindecisionmaking

8.Freedomofexpression

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Socialinjustice

Thisiswhenpeoplearenottreatedfairlyandtheirrightsarenotrespected.

Formsofsocialinjusticeintheschoolandthecommunity

1.Briberyandcorruption

2.Favouritismandnepotism

3.Preferenceforoneethnicgroupovertheother

4.Preferenceforonegenderovertheother

5.Discriminationagainstvariousgroupsofpeoplee.g.thedisabled

6.Underpayingworkers

CausesofsocialinjusticeinAfrica

1.Povertywhichislackofbasicnecessitieslikefoodandshelter.

2.Corruption-givingorreceivingmoneyorothermethodsofgratificationinordertowinor

inducefavours.

3.Bribery–givingmoneyorpresentstosomeonesothattheyhelpyouindoingillegalor

dishonestacts.

4.Discrimination

5.Oppression

Effectsofsocialinjustice

1.Bitternessinpeople

2.Lossofconfidenceinpeople

3.Peoplefeelinferior

4.Laziness

5.Highcriminalactivities

6.Lowdevelopment

7.Stigmatization(afeelingthatsomethingiswrongorembarrassing)

8.Conflict

9.Poverty

Waysoferadicatingsocialinjusticeintheschoolandcommunity

1.Everyoneshouldparticipateindecision-making

2.Toleratingviewsofothers

3.Goodgovernance

4.Fairdecisionsorpunishments

5.Equalityandfairnessinprovisionofservices

6.Respectingpeople’srights

7.Preventionofcrimes

Importanceofsocialjustice

1.Humanrightsofallarerespected.

2.Resourcesareallocatedfairly

3.Citizensaretreatedfairlybyauthoritiesandthelegalsystem

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4.Equalopportunitiesforalltoparticipateineconomicdevelopment

5.Peaceandsecurity

Organizationsthatdealwithinternationalsocialjusticeandinjustice

1.UnitedNations–protectsandpromotestheintegrityofallpersonsintheworld.Italso

addressesvariousissuese.g.poverty,illiteracy,injustice,effectsofwarsand civil

conflicts.

2.InternationalPolice(Interpol)– helpscountriestodealwith criminalsuspectsthat

operateinmorethanonecountry.Criminalactivitiesincludedrugtrafficking,prostitution

andcarhi-jacking.

3.AmnestyInternational–investigateandreportcasesofhumanrightsviolationsallover

theworld.

4.Humanrightsorganizationse.g.theOfficeoftheOmbudsmanandtheHumanRights

Commission.

Waysinwhichorganizationspromotesocialjustice

1.Monitoringsocialinjusticesintheworld.

2.Courttrialsforactsofsocialinjustice

3.Exposingsocialinjusticesinthemedia

4.Lobbyingforinternationalactionagainstcountriesthatpromotesocialinjusticee.g.

sanctions,freezingdonoraidandfreezingbankaccounts.

Successesandfailuresoforganizationsinpromotingsocialjustice

1.Success–theUnitedNationshasbeensettingupinternationaltribunalstobringtotrial

thoseaccusedofgenocideandothercrimesagainsthumanityinformerYugoslaviaand

Rwanda.

2.Failure– manyindividualsthathavebeencommittingcrimesinCambodia,Angola,

Liberia,Sierra Leone and Mozambique forthe past50 years have notbeen held

accountableforanyofthesecrimes.

TOPIC9:SOCIAL,ETHICALAND

PERSONALDEVELOPMENT

Courtship

Courtshipistheperiodoftryingtoknowandunderstandtheprospectivemarriagepartner.This

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maylastforalongorashorttimealthoughtheparentmaybecomeanxiousifitgoesontoolong.

Waysofcourting

1.Individualorfacetoface–boyandgirlapproacheachotherfacetofaceinabus,train,

entertainmentcentres,sportsactivitiesorontheroad.Onemayalsowritealetter.

2.Thirdpartyorthroughafriend– apersonsendsafriendorarelativetoproposeto

someonewhomheorshehasbeenattractedto.

3.Mediaadvertisement–throughnewspapers,e-mail,facebookandotherformsofmedia

wherepeopleinvitemembersoftheoppositesextoproposetothem.

Basicstepstowardscourtship

1.Theencounter–whenthetwomeetjustbycoincidenceorotherreasons.

2.Attraction–whenthetwowhohavemetorhavebeenmeetinggetattractedtoeachother.

Thismaybeonesidedorbothways.

3.Communication–proposingsideusuallythemanorboycommunicatetotheotherhis

feelings.

4.Courtship–positiveanswertotheproposalleadstocourtshipwhileanegativeanswer

willthereforecutthewholeprocess.

Importanceofcourting

1.Partnersknoweachotherspersonality,valuesandbeliefs.

2.Theylearneachothersattitudesandgoals.

3.Theyknowtheirpartner’sfamilymembers

4.Theyresolveanydifference

Marriage

Thisisalegalunionbetweenamanandawomanlivingasahusbandandwife.

Thisiswhenamanandwomanpromisetostaytogetherfortherestoftheirlives.

Reasonsformarriage

1.Tohavechildrenandbringthemup.

2.Tohavesexualitywithone’swifeorhusbandinanexclusiveway.

3.Toenjoylifelongfriendship,companionshipandemotionalsecurity.

4.Tomakeacommitmenttothepersonyoulove.

Factorsconsideredwhenchoosingamarriagepartner

1.Characterorpersonality orappearance – a partnermusthave good behaviour,

cleanlinessandbewellgroomed.

2.Religiousfaith–partnersshouldknoweachother’sdenominationtoavoiddifferencesin

beliefswhentheygetmarriedandalsoiftheybelongtodifferentreligiousgroups,they

agreewhomtofollowtheother.

3.Educationalbackground–peopleshouldknow theirpartner’seducationalbackground

beforegettingmarried.

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4.Healthstatus–partnersneedtoknowhealthandassociatedproblemsordiseasessuch

asHIV/AIDSandAsthma.

5.Skillsandknowledge–inruralareas,youngmenandwomenlookforparticularskills

whenchoosingpartnerse.g.buildingahouse,storagebarnsandfences.

6.Socializationwherepartnersmustbeabletomixwithothers.

7.Emotionalstatus

Waysofpreparingformarriage

1.Abstinencefrom premaritalsexwherepartnersshouldnotengageinsexualactivities

duringcourtshiptoavoidSTDsandunplannedpregnancies.

2.Longcourtshipperiodforadequatepreparation.

3.Buildingahomeformakingvariousdecisionsconcerningtheirlife.

4.HIV/AIDStestingsothattheyknow eachother’sHIVstatustomakerightdecisions

concerningtheirmarriage.

5.Soundfinancialbasetobeabletobuybasicnecessitiessuchasfood,clothes,education

resourcesandalsoaccessmedicalservices.

6.Soundemploymenttomaintaintheirfinancialstand.

Waysofenteringintomarriage

1.Traditionalorcustomary–whenamanhasidentifiedapotentialmarriagepartner,he

informshisuncleorauntwhoofficiallyproposetothewomanthroughherparents.Onthe

dayofthemarriageceremony,thewoman’sparentspresenthertotheprospective

husbandthroughacelebrationwhichmayinvolvedancingandfeasting.

2.Christiancelebration–itiscelebratedunderChristianlawbyapriestinachurch.Every

religiouscelebrationdemandsaninitialtraditionalsystemfirst.

3.Civilmarriage–itisconductedintheRegistrarGeneral’soffice.Anappointmentismade

3weeksbeforethemarriagedaytogivechancetopeoplewithobjections.Itisdonebyan

authorizedgovernmentofficer.

4.Muslim ceremony–itinvolvesthesigningofcontractwiththebride’sfatherorguardian

beforetwomalemuslim witnesses.Theimam preachesandthenthecoupleexchanges

rings.

5.Civicmarriage–itisconductedataciviccouncilbyeitherthemayororchairmanofthe

council.Itbecomesvalidbytheciviltypeofmarriage.

6.Elopement– itisanarrangementwhereamanandwomanarrangetosecretlyget

married.Itisquestionabletoundergothisceremonybecauseifthetwodothisinsecrecy

itmaymeanthateitheroneorbothofthem alreadybelongtoanothermarriageandhave

decidedtorunawayfrom suchmarriagesorthemarriageisobjectionabletosome

membersofthefamilyorcommunity.

7.Co-habitation–anarrangementwhereamanandwomanlivetogetherinahouseand

sometimesmaygoaheadtohavechildrenbutarenotofficiallymarried.Itmaycome

becausethetwomayfindthemarriagepreparationprocesstoolongandinvolving,pre-

maritalsexduringcourtshipmighthaveledtounwantedpregnancyoritmaybeoutof

choice.

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Factorsthathelptopreservemarriage

1.Honestywhichmeansbeingtruthfultoeachotherandmustdiscussissueswithout

hiding.

2.Freechoiceofmarriagepartnerwherethetwopartnersshouldbeallowedtocontacteach

otherbeforeamarriagearrangement.

3.Forgivingandforgettingwhichmeanspartnersmustdiscusstheirdifferencesandif

someonehasmadeamistake,heorshemustapologize.

4.Fidelitywhichmeansbeingloyalandfaithfultoeachotherbyavoidingadultery.

5.Perseverancebybeingabletoresistdailyproblemstoavoidbreakingupmarriages.

6.Mutualcarewherepartnerscareforeachotherinallaspectsoftheirmarriagelikelooking

afterthehousehold,childrenandeachotherwhenoneissick.

7.Communicationwherepartnersshouldtelleachotherwhatishappeningandhowthey

feel.

Responsibleparenthood

Itreferstotheprovisionofbasicneedstothefamilysuchasfood,love,clothingandshelter.

Italsoinvolvessocializationwhichhelpschildrento:

 Knowthedifferencesbetweenrightandwrong

 Behaveinappropriatemanner

 Respectelders

 Valuetheimportanceoftraditionandcommunitycustoms

 Givevaluetoanyhardwork

Socialandethicalvalues

Asocialvalueisapractice,ideaorbeliefthatpeoplebelongingtoaparticulargrouporsociety

holdinrespectorhighesteem.

Anethicalvalueisageneralidea,practiceorbeliefwhichinfluencesthewayaparticulargroup

ofpeopleorsocietyconsidersgoodorbadbehaviour.

Internationalsocialandethicalvalues

1.Appreciationofotherpeople’sculturewherepeopleviewotherpeople’sculturepositively.

2.Respectforpeople’srightsbynotinfringingonotherpeople’srights.

3.Racialorethnicequalityin which racialand ethnicidentitiesofpeopleshould be

respected

4.Respectfortheruleoflaw byobservingandrespectingalllawsandinternationally

acceptablelaws.

5.Freedom ofworshipbyrespectingindividualchoiceofreligionandfreedom ofother

peopletoworshipwithinthecommunity.

6.Respectforinternationalhealthrequirementsespeciallyapersontravellingtoanother

countryshouldbecertifiedfreefrom diseasessuchassmallpox,yellow feverand

HIV/IDS.

7.Respectforinternationalimmigrationrequirementsinordertoregulatetheflowofpeople

sotravellershavetocarryaproofoftheiridentitysuchasapassportandhealth

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certificates.

8.Sympathyandempathy(whenonecanimaginewhatisliketogothroughthesame

experienceassomeoneelse)whichmeanspeopleshouldbemovedbythesufferingof

others.

Contributionsofsocialandethicalvaluesforinternationallife

1.Leadstopeace

2.Scientificandeconomicdevelopment

3.Enhanceculturalexchange

4.Promotesinternationalsecurity

5.Developseducation

6.Respectofotherpeople’srights

TOPIC10:POPULATIONAND

DEVELOPMENT

Thetotalpopulationofanysocietycanchangeeitherthroughincreasingordecreasing.Thetotal

populationoftheworldhasbeenincreasingbecausethetotalpopulationsofmanycountries

havebeenincreasing.

Factorsthatleadtopopulationchange

1.Birthratemeansnumberoflivebirthsinoneyearforevery1000people.Itismainly

affectedbyfertilityrate(averagenumberofchildrenborntoawoman)whichmeanshigh

birthratesincreasepopulationofanarea.

2.Deathratemeansnumberofdeathsinoneyearper1000ofapopulation.Highdeath

rateswouldresultintoareductioninthepopulationofthecountry.

3.Infantmortalityratemeansnumberofchildrenwhodonotliveuntiltheageofone.

4.Epidemicswhichmeansoutbreakofdiseaseshasanimpactofreducingthepopulationof

anareabecausetheykillalotofpeoplewithinashortperiodoftime.

5.Naturaldisasterssuchasfloodsandearthquakeskillmanypeopleatthesametimethus

leadingtoareductioninpopulation.

6.Unemploymentaffectspopulation.Forexample,ruralareashavelowpopulationdueto

high unemploymentlevelswhileurban areashavehigh population becausepeople

migratetotheseareastoaccessemployment.

7.Warsmakepeopletofleetheirareasthusleadingtolowpopulationinconflictareaswhile

peacefulareashavehighpopulation.

8.Migrationwhichmaybethroughemigration(movementofpeoplefrom theircountryto

liveinanothercountry)andimmigration(movementofpeopleintoaforeigncountry).This

maybeduetosocial,economicandpoliticalreasonsthusemigrationreducespopulation

whileimmigrationincreasespopulation.

9.Accessibilitytofinancialresourceswhichmeanspeoplebecomeattractedtoareaswith

manyopportunitiesoffinancialopportunitiestherebyincreasingthepopulationofanarea.

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10.Maternalmortality(womenwhodiewhengivingbirth)affectsthepopulationbecause

highermaternalmortalityleadstoareductioninpopulationwhilelowmaternalmortality

ratesresulttohighpopulation.

Effectsofpopulationgrowth

1.Pressureonresourcessuchasland,forestsandwater.

2.Lossofhumanresourcesduetofoodinsecurity.

3.Povertyduetolackofaccesstosocialandeconomicservices.

4.Unemploymentbecausethepopulationishighercomparedtothenumberofjobs.

5.Overcrowdingwhichcanresultintoeasyspreadofinfectiousdiseases.

6.Increaseincrimebecausemanypeoplecannotaccessbasicnecessities.

7.Pollutionduetoimproperwastedisposals.

8.Foodinsecurity.

Impactofpopulationgrowthondevelopment

1.Loweringofqualityofservicese.g.educationandhealth.

2.Highlevelsofpoverty

3.Lossofpeaceandsecurity

4.Environmentaldegradation.

5.Illness

6.Highmortalityrates

Populationcontrol

Theseareeffortstoslowpopulationgrowththroughactiontolowerfertility.

Itisthereductionofpopulationsizeofacountry.

Waysofcontrollingpopulationgrowth

1.Naturalmethods

a.Epidemics–diseasesthatarecapableofspreadingandkillingalotofpeople

withinashortperiodoftimee.g.theEbolavirus,yellowfeverandMeningitis.

b.Droughtwhichisanabnormallyprolongeddryspellthatcancausedeathofmany

peopleespeciallythosethatdependonagriculture.

c.Faminewhichistheextremescarcityoffoodthatcausesdeathofpeople.

d.Naturaldeathbecausepeoplearemadenottoliveeternally.

2.Man-made

a.Wars

b.Familyplanningwhichmeansconsciouseffortofcouplestoregulatethenumber

ofspacingofbirthsthroughartificialandnaturalmethodsofcontraception.

Importanceofcontrollingpopulationgrowth

1.Reducesovercrowdinginmanyplaces.

2.Reducesenvironmentaldegradation.

3.Ensureavailabilityofresources.

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4.Reducesunemployment

5.Goodprovisionofsocialservices

6.Foodsecurity

7.Lowurbanization

Environmentalconservation

Thesearemethodstoprotectnaturalresourcessothattheyarepermanentlyavailable.

Theseareprinciplesandpracticesthathelptokeeptheenvironmentsafeandingoodcondition.

Importanceofenvironmentalconservation

1.Preservationofspeciesofplantandanimal.

2.Avoidinglandandsoildegradation

3.Maintainingplantandanimaldiversity

4.Improvingproductivitysincenutrientsareconserved.

Humanpracticesthatdestroylivingandnon-livingthings

1.Pollutionoftheland,airandwaterbecauseofdisposingdomesticwastesintorivers,

constructionofpitlatrinesorwells,usingbushlatrines,smokinginpublicplaces,fishing

usingherbs.

2.Carelesscuttingdownoftreesforfuelwood,charcoal,timber,settlementandcultivation.

3.Poaching(illegalhuntingofwildanimals)becausetheywantfood,concoctionsfor

medicinaluseandivoryfromelephants.

4.Overfishingduetoahighdemandcausedbyanincreaseinpopulation.

5.Overstocking(keepingofmoredomesticanimalsthanapieceoflandcansustainably

hold)andovergrazing.

Consequencesofdestroyingtheenvironment

1.Climaticchange

2.GlobalwarmingwhichcauseswarmingupoficyregionsofArcticandAntarctica.This

maymakethesealevelstoriseandeventuallyleadtofloods.

3.Heavyuseofenergyresultstorapiduseofnon-renewableresources.

4.Soilerosionanddesertificationduetodeforestation.

5.Poverty,illhealthandstarvationduetolossoffertility.

6.Speciesofflora(plants)andfauna(animals)shallbecomeextinct.

7.Warswillbefoughtonwaterduetotheeverincreasingpopulationontheland.

8.Scarcityofwater.

ThePopulationPolicyofMalawi

Itwasformulatedin1994andwasinfluencedbythefollowingfactors:

1.Highfertilityrate

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2.Rapidpopulationgrowth

3.Highdependencyburden(50%ofpopulationisunder15yearshencemanypeopleare

dependants)

4.Pressureonlandandsocialservices.

5.Unemploymentproblems.

Elementsofthepopulationpolicy

1.Demographicandfamilyplanningwhichhasthefollowingobjectives:

a.Toachievealowerpopulationgrowthrate.

b.Tolowerfertility,infant,childandmaternalmortality.

c.Toreduceadolescentmarriagesandteenagepregnancies.

d.Toslowdownthehighrateofurbanization.

2.Information,educationandcommunicationwhichhasthefollowingobjectives:

a.Toenhanceprogrammeswhichincreaseawarenessofthepopulationproblems

andfacilitateaccesstoinformationaboutcontraceptives.

b.Toimproveaccess,quality,efficiencyandvocationalrelevanceofprimaryschool

andinformaleducationalsystems.

c.Tosystematicallyintegratepopulationeducationinformalschoolsystem and

otherinstitutionsoflearning.

3.Genderanddevelopmentwhichhasthefollowingobjectives:

a.Toimprovethestatusoftheyouthandwomeninallspheresofdevelopment.

b.Toensurefoodsecurityandadequatenutritionformothersandchildren

4.Researchandenvironmentwhichhasthefollowingobjectives:

a.Toimprovethestatusoftheyouthandwomeninallspheresofdevelopment

b.Toensurefoodsecurityandadequatenutritionformothersandchildren

5.Employmentwhichhasthefollowingobjectives:

a.Toimproveentrepreneurial,managerialandotherrelevantskillsforthecountry’s

labourforce.

b.Toincreaseproductiveemploymentandmoreequitabledistributionofresources.

Practicesthataffecttheimplementationofthepopulationpolicy

1.Polygamy(havingmorethanonewife)whichmayleadtoSTDsincludingHIV/AIDShence

manypeopledie.

2.Religiousbeliefsinsomereligionsprohibittheirmemberstousecontraceptives.This

mayaffectchildspacinginfamilies.

3.Initiationceremonieswhichbringbadpracticessuchasfisi(sexualpracticeswithagirl

undergoinginitiation)canleadtothespreadofSTDsaswellasunwantedpregnancies.

4.Moraldecay such as prostitution and drug abuse can lead to STDs,unwanted

pregnanciesandmentalillnesses.

5.WifeorhusbandinheritanceorchokolocanfacilitatethespreadofSTDsandhigh

population.

6.WidowcleansingcanleadtohighpopulationandspreadofSTDsincludingHIV/AIDS.

Waysoferadicatingpracticesthataffecttheimplementationofthepopulationpolicy

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1.Publicawarenesscampaignstosensitizethepublicthenegativeeffectsofsuchpractices.

2.Womenempowermentwhichmightmakeawomantoknowherrightsandhencesay‘no’

tosuchpractices.

3.Useoflegislationtopunishthosethatarecaughtfacilitatingthesepractices.

Strategiesforimplementingthepopulationpolicy

1.Information,educationandcommunication

a.Formarriedcouples–relayclearmessagesaboutfamilyplanningusingpersonal

contacts,eye-catching posters,written information,drama traditionaldances,

proverbsandthemedia.

b.Foryoungpeople–conveymessagesabout:

i.Humansexualityandhowreproductiontakesplace.

ii.Dangersofunprotectedsexe.g.unwantedpregnanciesandSTDs.

iii.Accurateinformationaboutdifferentcontraceptives

iv.Theneedforboystotakeresponsibilityfortheirsexualbahaviour,torespect

girlsandacceptthatgirlshaveauthorityovertheirbodies.

v.Needforgirlstodevelopselfrespectandsaynotocasualsex.

vi.Highhealthrisksinvolvedinearlypregnancies.

vii.Highrisksinvolvedinabortione.g.itisagainstthelaw,canleadtoinfertility

andevendeath.

2.Research–collectingdataatfrequentintervalsbyexaminingrecordsofbirths,deaths,

hospitalandemployers’recordsandcensusrecordsaswellasconductinginterviewsfor

people.

3.Familyplanningservicedelivery–peopleshouldhaveeasyaccesstofamilyplanning

facilitiestogetcontraceptiveservicesandadviceoncontraceptives.

4.Genderanddevelopment–aspectsofthisstrategyinclude:

a.Tochangetraditionalattitudesandpracticeswhichdiscriminateagainstwomen

andgirls.

b.Topromotefemaleeducation

c.Toincreaselevelsoffemaleparticipationincommunityprogrammes.

d.Toraiseawarenessofwomen’slegalrights.

e.Toprovidedaycarecentresforwomenatwork.

f.Toprovideequalpayforequalwork.

g.Toassistsingleparenthouseholdswithadviceonhowtogenerateincome.

5.Advocacy– keyindividualsandgroupsestablishlinkswithdecision-makinginthe

communityand getmessagesaboutfamilyplanning,responsibleparenthood,safe

motherhoodandsmallsizedfamilies.

ProgrammesforimplementingtheMalawiPopulationPolicy

1.Reproductivehealth – itwas adopted asa key programme afteran International

ConferenceonPopulationandDevelopmentheldinCairoin1994.ItisrunbytheMinistry

ofHealthandPopulationanditscomponentsincludefamilyplanning,safemotherhood,

adolescentreproductivehealth,preventionandmanagementofSTDsincludingHIV/AIDS.

Ittargetsmen,womenandtheyouth.

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2.Safemotherhood–itwaslaunchedin1996toreducethematernalmortalityfigureto310

forevery100,000birthsandtargetswomen.

3.NationalAdolescentReproductiveHealthProgramme–aneedsassessmentwasdoneon

adolescentreproductivehealthin1998andsetupthefollowingactivities:

a.Moraltraininginprimaryandsecondaryschoolscurriculum.

b.GABLEprojectworkingwithtraditionalleadersinmoraltrainingandessentiallife

skillse.g.decision-makingandnegotiation.

c.Someyouthgroupsareprovidingreproductivehealtheducationtotheirpeers.

d.Messagesonresponsiblesexualpracticesthroughposters,pamphlets,t-shirtsand

theradio.Ittargetstheyouthespeciallyadolescents.

4.Information,EducationandCommunication(IEC)–messageswouldbeconveyedina

clear,friendlyandculturallyacceptablewayusingpicturesandstories.Ittargetseveryone.

5.Gender–thesearedonebyboththegovernmentandNGOstoaddressgenderissuese.g.

girlsAttainmentinBasicLiteracyandEducation(GABLE)andForum forAfricanWomen

EducationalistsinMalawi(FAWEMA).Ittargetsmen,womenandtheyouth.

6.Advocacy–programmesareaimedatsupportingaparticularcauseorissueandmainly

promotechangeinpolicy,programmesorlegislationandcreateasupportiveenvironment

forprogrammes.Itdeals with issues e.g.rights ofadolescentsto contraceptives,

maternityleave,domesticviolenceandgenderequality.Ittargetseveryone.

Peopleneedtoworktogethertoensurethattheobjectivesofthepopulationpolicyareachieved

effectively.

GuidanceandcounsellingonHIV/AIDS

Guidanceandcounsellinginvolvesfacetofaceinteraction(communication)betweentheperson

withaproblem andtheonetryingtosolvetheproblem.Counsellingprovidespeoplewith

informationthathelpstosolveadifficultdecisionoreffectsofthediseases.

Voluntarycounsellingandtesting(VCT)istheimportantnationalplanningforfightingthis

disease.Thepersonofferingadviceisknownasacounsellorandthepersonreceivingthe

adviceisaclient.

Typesofcounselling

1.Pre-test– itisdonebeforeoneistestedforHIV/AIDS.Theclientisinformedthe

importanceofthetest,strictconfidentialityandisgiventimetomakeadecision.This

preparestheclientpsychologicallytoaccepttheresults.

2.Post-test–itisdoneafterthetest.ThosewhoareHIVnegativearecounselledonhow

theycanavoidbeinginfected.ForthosewhoareHIVpositive,theyareadvisedonhowto

conducttheirsexualbehaviour,typesoffoodtheyshouldeat,issuesaboutchildrenand

howtostaywiththeirpartnerifmarried.

3. Continuing–itisdonetopeoplewhohavebeendiagnosedHIVpositivefrom timeto

timeathome,hospitalsorotherplaces.

4.Pastoral–itisofferedbyreligiousleaderswhogivespiritualguidancetogivehopeto

HIV/AIDspatientsandguardiansusingBiblemessagesbyencouragingfaithfulnessin

marriageandabstinence.

5.Preventive–itisgiventothosewhoareHIVnegativebutwhosebehaviourputsthem at

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ariskandalsotothosewhoareHIVpositivetohelpthemlookaftertheirhealthandavoid

spreadingthedisease.

6.Supportive–itisofferedtopatients,guardiansandfamiliestohelpthem solveproblems

broughtbythediseasetomakefutureplans.Italsoprovidessupporttorelativesduring

bereavementtime.

InstitutionsthatprovideguidanceandcounsellingonHIV/AIDS

1.Publicandprivatehospitals– theseprovideinformationonHIV/AIDS,screeningof

peopleforHIV/AIDSandtreatmentofotherdiseasessufferedbyHIV/AIDSpatients.

2.BanjaLaMtsogolo–theseprovidereproductivehealth,guidanceandcounsellingand

publicawarenesstowardsHIV/AIDS.

3. Dropincentres–thesearesimplefacilitieswhichprovideguidanceandcounselling,

publicawarenesstowardsHIV/AIDS.Theyarecommunitybased.

4.NGOse.g.PlanInternationalMalawi,ActionAidMalawi,MalawiAIDSCounsellingand

ResourceCentre(MACRO).

5.Religiousorganizationse.g.AdventistandReliefAgency(ADRA)andBlantyreChristian

Centre.

6.CommunityBasedOrganizations– SalimaAIDSSupportOrganizationandFriendsof

AIDSandSupportTrustinNsanje.

7.Youthorganizations

8.Companies

MethodsofguidingandcounsellingHIV/AIDSpatientsandguardians

1.Home-basedcaresupervisors–thisiswhenmembersofahouseholdwithHIV/AIDS

patientsandselectedpeoplefrom thecommunityaretrainedtoprovideguidanceand

counsellingintheirownhome.ItisdoneathomebecauseHIV/AIDSisachronicdisease

thatlastsmonthsoryears,soapatientmaybemovingfrom hometohospitaland back

againforseveraltimes.

2.Peercounselling–thisiswhenpeopleofthesamecharacteristicswithrespecttoageor

socialstatuse.g.youths,politicians,communityleaders,guardiansofHIV/AIDSpatients

andtraditionalhealerseducateandinfluenceeachother.Thesearetrainedto:

a.Discussdangersofpromiscuousbehaviour

b.TeachwaystopreventHIV/AIDS

c.ProvidesupportiveadviceandlovetoHIV/AIDSpatients.

3.Mantoman–itmakesuseofmentocounselothermensincetheyarefreewithfellow

menandnotwomenortheirspousestotalkaboutthisdisease.

Inaddition,mentendtohavemorespouses(sexualpartners)whichleadstothespread

ofHIV/AIDS,sotheyneedtobeused.BLM hasthisprogrammewheremeninvillages,

workplacesandothercommunitiesareeducatedon:

a.Awarenessofsymptomsandtreatmentofsexuallytransmitteddiseases.

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b.InformationonHIV/AIDS

c.Informationonfamilyplanningandresponsiblesexualbehaviour

d.Useofcondoms

e.PreventiveandsupportivecounsellingtoHIV/AIDS

4.Useofhospitalbasedcounsellors-trainedhealthpersonnelfrom bighospitals,clinics

anddispensariesprovideguidanceandcounselling toHIV/AIDSpatients,guidanceand

HIV/AIDSnegativepeople.

ImportanceofcounsellingHIV/AIDSpatientsandguardians

1.Diffusefears,feelingsandworries.

2.Makepeopletochangetheirbehavioursandattitudes.

3.HelptofindreliablesolutionstoHIVinfection.

4.Offershopeandconfidencetopatients.

5.Helppeopletoknow therelationshipbetweenothersexuallytransmitteddiseasesand

HIV/AIDS

6.ReducesHIV/AIDSinfections

7.Reducesdiscriminationorstigmatization

Consequencesoflackofguidanceandcounselling

1.HIV/AIDSpatientsliveinfearandanxietywhichcanmakethemcommitsuicide.

2.Patientsandguardiansfacediscriminationbythefamilymembersandthesociety.

3.HIV/AIDSpatientswillcontinuetobespreadsincepeopledonotknowmuchaboutthis

disease.

4.Patientsandotherscannotchangetheirattitudesandbehaviour.

SexuallyTransmittedDiseasesandHIV/AIDSinMalawi

STDsarediseasestransmittedthroughsexualintercoursewithapersonwhoisalreadyinfected

with thedisease.Examplesincludesyphilis(chindoko),gonorrhea (chonzonono),Candida

(mauka)andHIV/AIDS.

ImportanceofcaringforSTDandHIV/AIDSpatients

1.Theydevelopasenseofbelongingsincetheyarecaredfor.

2.Givesapatienthopewhichmeansheisassuredoflivinglongerandrelativeswillbecared

forwhenhedies.

3.Improvestheirqualityoflifesincetheyareinclosecontactwithpeople.Thiscontact

removesstress,anxietyanddepression.

4.Decreasesstigmasinceleadersareinvolvedincaringforpatientshencethecommunity

followsthesetexample.

5.StrengthensHIV/AIDSpreventiontoothersthatanyonecanbeatriskwithreferenceto

patients’experiences.

WaysofcaringforSTDandHIV/AIDSpatients

1.Supportbyguardiansandothercaretakersinthehospitalsandathomewhocounsel

patients,spendalotoftimewiththem,showtheirloveanddohouseholdtasks.

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2.Provisionofnutritiousfoodandothernecessitiessuchasenergygiving,bodygivingand

protectivefoods.Theyshouldbetoldtoavoidsmokinganddrinkingalcoholaswellas

advisedtobesleepingoncleanclothing.

3.Patientsshouldbeencouragedtoseekearlymedicalassistance.Forexample,patients

sufferingfrom curableSTDsshouldgetthetreatmentbeforethesituationworsensand

thosesufferingfrom HIV/AIDSshouldlookforlifeprolongingdrugsprovidedforfreeand

soldinbothpublicandprivatehospitals.

4.Spiritualandmoralsupportprovidedbyreligiousleadersbyprayingtogivethepatients

hopeandencouragement.

Importanceofhospital-basedandhome-basedcareforHIV/AIDSpatients

1.Hospital-based

a.HelpstreatmentofHIV/AIDSrelateddiseaseslikepneumonia,tuberculosisand

skindiseases.

b.Minimizesthere-infectionofSTDsbecausethepatientisnotinsexualcontactwith

infectedpeopleandpartners.

c.Thereisprolongingoflifesincethepatientiscloselymonitoredbyspecialists.

d.Preventoverburdeningofindividualsathomeespeciallywomenwhoperformmany

taskstopatients.

e.Relativesaregivenadviceonhowtocareforpatients.

2.Home-basedcare

a.Reducesriskofcontractingotherdiseaseswhicharebroughtbycongestionin

hospitals.

b.Reduces costswhich can beaccumulated byhospitalvisits,supporting the

patientswithfood,medicalbillsandclothing.

c.Reducescareburdeninhospitalsbecausehealthservicesarenotprovidedtoalot

ofpeople.

d.Relativesareabletodootherdutieswhenthepatientisathomethaninhospitals.

e.Goodbasichomecaremakesthepatienttobeactiveandproductive.

f.HelpstodestigmatiseHIV/AIDS

g.EducatesfamiliesandcommunitiesaboutHIV/AIDSprevention

h.Providesassuranceofloveandaffectionbecausepeoplefeelcomfortedattheir

homeswhentheyarewithfriendsandrelatives.

WaysinwhichguardianscanavoidcontractingHIV/AIDS

1.Coveringbrokenskin,soresorcutswithwaterproofplastersordressingbeforecontact

withpatients.

2.Washingbloodstainedclotheswithchemicaldisinfectantsorathightemperatures.

3.Safedisposalofwastecontaminatedwithbloodandbodyfluids.

4.Wearingglovesandgownswhenhandlingpatients.

5.Washhandswithsoapbeforeandafterhandlingpatients.

6.Avoidsharingpersonalitemsthatmighthavebloodonthemsuchastoothbrushes,dental

appliances,razorsornail-groomingequipment.

7.Avoidkissingifanyonehasbleedinggumsandmouthsores.

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Drugandsubstanceuseandabuse

Adrugisanysubstancethathasaphysicaleffectonhumanbeing.Therealotofdrugswhich

are used to cure diseases such as antibiotics(cure infections),analgesics(controlpain),

anaesthetics (eliminate sensation especially when doing operation),narcotics (to make

someonesleepyandstoppain),stimulants(makesomeoneactive).

Whenadrugisusedforsomepurposesthanwhatitisintendedfor,wesayitisabused.Drugs

frequentlyabusedincludeheroin(narcotic),cocaine(stimulant),valium(depressant),cannabis,

aspirinandhallucinogens(makesomeoneseewhatisnotthere).Substancesthatareabused

includetermic,glue,alcoholandpetrol.Peoplemisusedrugsbecausepeoplebelievetheywill

makethemfeelhappy,moreintelligentandmorerelaxed.

Causesofdrugandsubstanceuseandabuse

1.Peerpressure

2.Lackofadequatefamilysupport

3.Lackofparentalsupervision

4.Excessunsupervisedtime

5.Lowtoleranceforfrustration

6.Increasedaccesstodrugsespeciallyhealthworkers

7.Tobecomeaddicted

Effectsofdrugandsubstanceabuse

1.Totheindividual

a.Becomeviolentandaggressive

b.LeadtounprotectedsexwhichresultintoSTDs

c.Breakdownofmarriages

d.Socialisolation

e.Lossofemployment

f.Death

g.Insanityormadness

h.Lungcancer

i. Heartfailureandrespiratorydiseases

j. Badperformanceatschool

k.Accidents

l. Impotence

2.Tothefamily

a.Lossofmoneyusedforbuyingandformedicalcaresincedrugabusershave

healthrisks.

b.Familylivesinfearandanxietysincetheabuserbecomesviolentandmentallyill

c.Lowproductivitybecauseafamilymemberbecomesmentallyillsoheorshecan

notassistinthework

d.Deathcausedbyirresponsiblebehaviourandroadaccidents

e.Lossofemploymenthencelackofsupporttothefamily.

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Impactofdrugandsubstanceabuseondevelopment

1.Lossofwelltrainedpeoplesincedrugabusersareatahealthrisk,theymaydieearly

withouthelpingmuchonthedevelopmentofthecountry.

2.Pressureonhealthservicessincetheabuserswhoaresickneedalargeamountof

moneyforbuyingdrugs.Thismoneywouldhavebeenusedonotherdevelopmental

activities.

3.Distortionofage-sexstructurebecausemanyyouthsandmalesaredrugabuserswhich

willdistorttheirageandstructurehencelowcontributionstodevelopment.

4.Increasedjuveniledelinquencysincemanyyouthsareinvolvedinmanycasessuchas

rapeandrobberieswhichmeanstheywillendupinprison.Asaresult,theycannot

contributetodevelopment.

5.Increasedorphanagesbecausemanydrugabusersaremaleswhohaveafamilysoif

thesepeopledie,therewillbeorphansandwomenhencenomeansofsurvival.

6.Low productivitydueto absenteeism bytheabuserin working placeswhich then

decreasesdevelopment.

Waysofavoidingtheeffectsofdrugandsubstanceabuse

1.Followingprescriptionsbyusingdrugsfortheirintendedpurpose.

2.Avoidingbadinfluencesofpeers.

3.Avoidingplaceswherepeoplewillbedrinkingandusingdrugs.

Waysofcurbingdrugandsubstanceabuse

1.Civiceducationandliteracyprogrammeswhichwillhelppeopletoknowtheeffectsof

drugandsubstanceabusesotheywillstayoffdrugs.

2.Beingengagedinproductiveworkoroccupationwhichmakespeopletobebusymostof

thetimeandstayoffdrugs.

3.Counsellingondrugandsubstanceabusetohelpabuserstosolveproblemsthatmake

themtoabusedrugsandsubstances.

4.Family help and interventions by consulting professionals who give the families

knowledgeofhelpingtheaddictoralcoholicorabuser.Inaddition,thefamilyshouldgive

supportwhentheabuserhasaskedforhelp.

5.Medicationbyphysicianstomakepeoplestayoffdrugsandsubstancese.g.Naltrexone

orusingtraditionaldrugs.

TOPIC11:SOCIALSERVICESAND

DEVELOPMENT

Socialservicesinstitutionsarethosethatprovideservicessuchaseducationandhealth.

Provisionandcareofsocialservices

1.Education–therearehighlevelsofadultilliteracyratesamongfemalesinmostAfrican

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countriessuchasMalawi.Countriesneedtofindwaysofreachingmorewomenwith

educationandalsoimprovethepercentageofstudentsenrollingatsecondaryschool

level.

2.Healthservices–provisionofhealthservicesispoorinmostAfricancountriesdueto

shortageofphysicianshencepeopledonotaccessqualitymedicalcare.

3.Waterandsanitaryservices–safewaterandsanitationservicesishighinurbanareas

thaninruralareas.

4.Electricity,transport,communication,informationandtechnologicalservices– many

developingcountriesfaceproblemsintheprovisionoftheseservices.

5.Housing–manypeopleindevelopingcountriesresidinginruralandhighdensityurban

areasliveinhousesnotfitforhumansettlement.Therearealotofshantyhousesthat

leak.Centralandlocalgovernments,NGOsandagenciesareworkinghardtoimprove

housingconditionsinmanydevelopingcountries.HabitatforHumanityInternationalis

oneoftheorganizationsthatareworkinghardtowardshelpingpeoplehaveaccessto

decenthouses.

Contributionsofsocialservicestodevelopment

1.Educationhelpsintheprovisionofsemi-skilledandskilledlabourforce.Inaddition,

educatedpeopleprovideabetterstandardoflivingfortheirfamilies.

2.Healthservices,safewaterandgoodsanitationmakepeopletobehealthywhocontribute

tothedevelopmentoftheirsocieties.

3.Peaceandstabilityattractbothdomesticandforeigninvestorsbecausetheyareassured

ofsecurity.

4.Adequatetransportation,communicationandelectricityleadtothesmoothrunningof

businesseswhichdevelopcountriesandprovideemploymenttopeople.

Impactofpopulationgrowthonsocialservices

1.Provisionofeducationtoanincreasedpopulationwillbetooexpensiveandnotpossible

duetoinadequateresources.

2.Pressureonhealthservicesbecausemorepeoplewillneedmedicalattention,accessto

safewaterandsanitation.

3.Strainontheabilitytomaintainpeaceandsecuritysincelawenforcersfinditdifficult.

4.Shortageofhousing,transportandcommunication.

Reasonsformisuseofsocialservices

1.Povertywhichcausespeopletobeinvolvedintheft.

2.LackoffinancialresourcesformaintenanceespeciallyinpoorAfricancountries.

3.Negativeattitudessincepeopledonothaveasenseofownershipofsocialservicesby

believingthattheyareownedbythegovernment.

4.Ignoranceandlackofappreciationbecausepeopledonotunderstandtheimportanceof

socialservices.

5.Politicalinfluencemakespeopletodestroystructuresbuiltbythepreviousregimeand

believetheexistinggovernmentshallprovideitsownsocialserviceinstitutions.

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Wiseuseofsocialservices

1.Queuinginanorderlyfashionforservices.

2.Receivingonlyenoughoftheservicebyobtainingresourcessuitabletoanindividual.

3.Respectingoneanother.

4.Protectinginfrastructurebymaintainingandrespectingthem.

5.Guardingagainsttheftandvandalism.

6.Civiceducationabouttheimportanceandsocialservices.

Criticalissuesrelatingtotheprovisionofsocialservices

1.Availabilityofsocialserviceswhichmeanssocialdevelopmentcannottakeplacewithout

theavailabilityofsocialservices.

2.Typesofsocialserviceswhichmeansthereisaneedofvarioussocialservicestoachieve

socialdevelopment.

3.Qualityofsocialserviceswhichmeanstheserviceshouldhaveacapacitytosatisfythe

needsofaparticulargroupofusers.Thesocialserviceshouldbeoftherightkindandbe

suitableforusebythoseforwhomitisintended.

4.Accessibilitywhichmeanssocialservicesshouldbelocatedwheretheycanbeeasily

reachedinbothruralandurbanareas.Inaddition,theiraccessibilityshouldnotbe

affectedbyorganizational,culturalandeconomicproblems.

5.Affordabilitythuspeopleshouldbeabletopayfortheservices.

6.Careforsocialservicesbythepeoplesothattheycontinueprovidingqualityservices.

Effectsofissuesrelatingtotheprovisionofsocialservicesondevelopment

 Ifsocialservicesareadequateandavailabletoallpeople,thereisdevelopment.For

instance,peoplewhoareeducatedandhealthycontributetodevelopment.

 However,ifthesocialservicesareonlyavailabletopeopleincertainareasonlyortothe

welltodo,peopleindeprivedareaswillfeeljealousyandengageinnegativeissuesto

development.

Renownedpeopleinsocialservices

1.HenryDunant-HeisaSwisswhowasbornon8

May,1828whoseidealedtothe

formationofRedCross.HecameupwiththeideaofformingRedCrosswhenhecame

uponabloodybattleinSolferino,ItalywheretheFrenchandItaliantroopswerefighting

Austriansoldiers.Duringthiswar,40,000soldierswereeitherkilledorwounded.Whenhe

wenthome,headvocatedforaformationofreliefsocietiestohelppeoplewounded

duringwars.HeteamedupwithsomeSwisscitizensandformedtheInternational

CommitteefortheReliefoftheWoundedin1863whichlaterchangedtoInternational

CommitteeoftheRedCross.

ItssymbolisaredcrossonawhitebackgroundwhichistheoppositeoftheSwissflag

(hasawhitecrossonaredbackground)

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2.JairosJiri–heisagenerousmanfrom Zimbabwewhowaspitifulofsomedisabled

peopleinthestreets.HefundedtheJairosJiriAssociationforRehabilitationofthe

DisabledandtheBlindwhichstarteditsworkin195i.Theassociationbrought20disabled

people(theblindandcrippled)fortraininginvarioustrades.Today,itisthelargest

nationalrehabilitationagencywithschools,trainingcentres,craftcentresandacentrefor

olderpeoplewithdisabilities.Itisestimatedthat10,000disabledpeoplebenefitfrom this

organizationeveryyear.

3.MotherTheresa(Teresa)–Shewasbornin1910fromAlbanianparentsanddiedin1997.

ShewasaRomanCatholicnunwhodevotedherlifetocareforthepoorestinIndiaand

thisearnedheraname‘SaintoftheGutters’.ShefoundedtheMissionariesCharityin

CalcuttaorSistersofCharity.ShewaslivingwiththesickandthehomelessinCalcutta.

Theirachievementsinclude:

 Thesistersbroughtmanypeoplewhoweresickanddyingtoaspecialhomewhere

theywerelookedaftertodiewithdignity.

 Theylookedaftermanybabiesandlittlechildrenwhowereorphansorabandoned

bypoorparents.Thereare40suchhomesinIndia.

 TheyestablishedShantiNagar,acityofpeacewheretheleperscouldlookafter

themselves.

 TheyestablishedahouseinRomeforalcoholics,drugaddictsandthehomeless.

 Theyoperatedsoupkitchensforthehomelessinsomebiggestcitiesintheworld,

helpedthosewithAIDSandsupportedprisoners.

4.JimmyCarter–hewasthepresidentofUSAfrom1977to1981whoadvocatedforsocial

justiceandbasichumanrightswithhiswifeRosalynn.Theirworkincluded:

a.PersuadedleadersofEgyptandIsraeltosignapeacetreaty

b.Established HabitatforHumanity International,a non-profitmaking Christian

organizationthateliminatessubstandardhousing.Thisbeganin1984whenit

renovatedasixstoreybuildingwith19familiesinNew York.ItworksinUSA,

Canadaand79othercountriesincludingMalawiandhasbuilt30000houses

aroundtheworld.

c.Theyleada‘BuildingBlitz’eachyearinwhichvolunteersbuildhousesforaperiod

of2to3weeks.

5.FlorenceNightingale–shewasbornon12

May,1820inItalyanddiedin1910.Sheis

knownuniversallyasthefounderofmodernnursing.Herworkinclude:

a.InMarch,1854,shehelpedwoundedBritishsoldiersduringtheCrimeanwarin

Turkeywith38 nurses.Theyimproved sanitation and reduced deathrateof

patients.

b.Afterthewar,shebecamethepublichealthadvisortoallcountriesintheworld.

c.Sheestablishedanursingschoolwithmoneydonatedbyherformerpatientsand

charity.

6.GeorgeClaver–hehelpedtoform theHumanRightsForum fortheDisabledandOther

Disadvantaged in 1997 withan aim ofhelping disabled peoplein Malawi.On the

InternationalDayforthePeoplewithDisabilitiesin1998,heaskedthepresidentofMalawi

tolookintodifficultiesfacedbythedisabled.HealsotaughtMPsnottousetermslike

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’crippled’and‘handicapped’anddraftingofanationalpolicytogivedisabledpeopleequal

accesstosocialservices.

7.BrotherHortensiusMeeuws– hewasateacheratStPatricksSecondarySchoolin

Malawiwho helped fortheestablishmentofa schoolforthedeafatMaryView,

Chiradzuluwhichstartedwith5students.Healsoledtotheestablishmentofother

schoolsforthedeafatMua,DedzaandEmbangweni,MzimbaandMountainView,Thyolo.

TOPIC12:GLOBALVILLAGE

Globalissuesandchallengesinthe21

Century

1.Economicglobalization –theincreasing integration ofeconomiesaround the world

throughtradeandfinancialflowsaswellasthroughmovementofpeopleandknowledge

acrossinternationalborders.Theprocessofeconomicglobalizationhasbeenaffectedby

threefactorsnamely:

a.Improvementsintechnologyoftransportationandcommunicationwhichhasledto

the reduced costs oftransporting goods and services and otherfactors of

production as wellas communicating economically usefulknowledge and

technology.

b.Individuals and societies havefavoured taking advantage ofthebenefitsof

economicintegrationwhichhasbroughtfastereconomicgrowth.

c.Publicpoliciesofmostgovernmentshavesignificantlyinfluencedthecharacter

andpaceofeconomicintegratione.g.tradeliberalizationwhichattractforeign

investors.

2.EpidemicssuchasHIV/AIDS,theEbolavirusandMeningitis:

a.ItisestimatedthatHIV/AIDShadaffected34.3millionpeopleatthebeginningof

theyear2000andhadalreadykilled18.8millionpeopleworldwide.

b.Itisestimatedthatthereare1.2millioncasesofmeningitisworldwideeveryyear.It

ishighlyfatalcharacterizedbyintenseheadacheandstiffneck.Itistransmitted

throughdirectcontactwithaninfectedperson.

c.TheEbolaviruscausesseverehemorrhagicfeverinhumans(severebleedingboth

internallyandexternally).Mostpatientsdiewithinthefirst8-9daysofinfectionand

itistransmittedthroughdirectcontactwithaninfectedperson.

3.Terrorismmeansunlawfulpracticeusingviolentandintimidatingmethodsagainstpeople

orpropertytointimidateorcoerceagovernment,thecivilianpopulationoranypartfor

politicalandsocialobjectives.Therearemanyterroristgroupsintheworldnamely:

a. EuskaditoAskatasuna(ETA)–itisbasedinSpainandfightforindependenceof

BasquepeoplewholiveinNorthWestSpain.Itcarriesoutactsofviolenceagainst

theSpanishgovernmente.g.assassinations,bombingsandkidnappings.

b.Hamasisagroupwhichwasbornin1987inGazastripandcarriesoutattacks

mostly againstIsraelis because ofoccupying Hamas considered to be for

Palestinians.

c.HizbollaoraPartyofGodisaLebaneseShiitegroupcreatedin1983tocreatean

independentIslamicLebanonandtheousterofanythingrelatedtothegodless

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West.ItdoesactivitiesthatareantiUSandIsraelandtargetsIsraelciviliansand

militarypersonnel.Itusessuicidebomberswhichreferstopeoplewillingto

commitsuicideforthesakeofkillingmanyotherpeoplewhenthebombexplodes.

4.Povertyisestimatedtobeexperiencedbyover1billionpeople.Thesearepeoplewholive

onlessthan1US dollarperday.Absolutepovertyisaconditioncharacterizedby

deprivationofbasicneedslikesafedrinkingwater,sanitation,health,shelter,education

andinformation.

5.Theproblem ofrefugeesisaglobalconcernbecauserefugeesareofeveryraceand

religionandfoundineverypartoftheworld.Itisestimatedthattherewere22.3million

refugeesintheyear2000.

6.Proliferationofweaponsofmassdestructionwhichareweaponsthatarecapableof

killingalotofpeopleatonetimee.g.

a.Nuclearweaponshaveanexplosionwhichresultsfrom theenergyreleasedby

reactionsinvolvingatomicnuclei.Thesekillmillionsofpeoplewithinminutesofa

nuclearbomb.Longterm effectsofradiationincludehighincidentsofcancer,

sterility,cataracts,blooddisordersandgeneticdamagetopresentandfuture

generations.

b.Biologicalandchemicalweapons–biologicalusebiologicalagentswhichcontain

eitherlivingorganismsorthederivativesliketoxinswhichcausediseaseordeath.

Chemicalweaponsreleasetoxicgasesorliquidsthatattackthebody’snerves,

blood,skinorlungs.Theymayprovidesurfaceeffectsliketears,vomitingand

blisters.

c.Anti-personnellandmines–theseareexplosiveweaponsdesignedtokillorinjure

anyonethatcomesintocontactwiththem.Theyareoftenreferredtoasweapons

ofmassdestructioninslowmotionbecausetheyareindiscriminateweaponsthat

keeponkillinglongafterhostilitieshaveendedandremainforyearsoreven

decades.

7.Environmentalproblemsaffecttheentireworldandincludeairandwaterpollution,ozone

depletionanddeforestation.

Implicationsofglobalissuesandchallengesondevelopment

1.Globalizationofeconomieshashelped

a.Toincreaselevelsofinternationaltrade,communicationandtechnology

b.Countriestoopenupandgainaccesstotechnology

c.Easymovementofgoodsandpeople

Globalizationhasnegativelyaffectedtheworldbecause:

 Ithasresultedintheproblem ofbraindraininmostdevelopingcountriessince

manyskilledpeoplemigratetodevelopedcountries.

 Ithasincreasedthegapbetweentherichandthepooramongandwithincountries

2.Environmentalproblemshaveledtothegrowingthreattothephysicalhealth,economic

and socialwellbeing of people,land degradation,deforestation,desertification,

malnutritionandmigration.

3.Epidemicsposegreatthreatondevelopmentbecausetheyneedalotofmoneyfor

medicinesandkillalotofpeoplewithinashortperiodoftime.

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4.Terrorism negativelyaffectsdevelopmentsuchassecurityandpoliticalandeconomic

stability.Italsoaffectspeoplepsychologicallysuchthattheyliveinfear.Inaddition,

investorscannotdobusinessinplacesexperiencingterrorism.

5.Povertyleadstoloweconomicdevelopmentsincethepoorcannotcontributemuchto

economicdevelopment.Itisalsoassociatedwithhighincidentsofdiseaseshence

puttingastrainonhealthservices.

6.Problem ofrefugeesexertsalotofpressureondifferentresourceslikesocialservices

andnaturalresources.

7.Weaponsofmassdestructionkillandinjurealotofpeopletherebyexertingpressureon

healthservices.

Factorsthatcontributetoworldcooperation

1.EstablishmentofinternationalorganizationsliketheUnitedNationsmakesmember

countriestocooperateindealingwithsomeglobalissuesandchallenges.

2.Economicinterdependenceintheareaoftrademakescountriestocooperateintrading

systems.ExamplesoftradeorganizationsincludeCommonMarketforEasternand

SouthernStates(COMESA),WorldTradeOrganization(WTO)andEconomicCommunity

ofWesternAfricanStates(ECOWAS).

3.Ratification ofinternationalprotocols where each memberstate is supposed to

implementitandasaresultcooperateondifferentissuesintheprotocollikethe

ConventionontheRightsofaChild(CRC).

4.Sharingcommonpoliticalideologiessuchasmultipartyordemocracybringscooperation

amongcountriesthatpractiseit.CubaandChinacooperatebecausetheybothpractise

communism orsocialism (thegovernmentcontrolsitscountry’seconomicdevelopment

throughstateownershipandthatallpeopleareequalandwealthshouldbedivided

equally).Othercountriespractisecapitalism (asystem inwhichbusinessesareowned

andrunbyindividualsandnotthegovernment).

Prominentpersonalitiesthathavecontributedtoworldcooperation

1.MartinLutherKingJunior–hewasbornin1929andadvocatedforracialequalityinUSA

sincemanyblackswerefacingdiscrimination.Hiscivilrightsmovementreachedclimax

between1960and1965whenalegislationorlawwaspassedtoendracialsegregationin

publicfacilitiesandexpandvotingrights.HewasawardedaNobelPeacePrizein1964.

Hewasassassinatedin1968andisrememberedforhisfightforjusticeandpeaceforall

people.

2.DrHastingsKamuzuBanda–hewasborninKasungu,Malawiin1906anddiedon27

November,1997.Duringhisruleasapresidentheadvocatedforcontactanddialogue

whichmeansdisputesshouldberesolvedthroughdiscussion,dialogue,negotiationand

arbitration.

3.DesmondTutu– hewasbornon7

October,1931inSouthAfricaandgrew upin

apartheidSouthAfrica.HebecamethefirstblackAnglicanDeanofJohannesburg.He

spentmuchofhistimefightingforjusticeandracialharmonyinSouthAfricaandthe

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wholeworld.HewaschosenasaleaderofSouthAfrica’sTruthandReconciliation

CommissionbyNelsonMandelaattheendofapartheidtodealwithwhathappened

duringapartheid.Hecontinuestospeakoutagainstinjusticeandoppressionintheworld.

4.MahatmaGandhi–hewasbornin1869inWestIndiaandlatergotajobinSouthAfrica

whereheexperiencedracialdiscriminationsoheworkedtirelesslytoimproverightsof

Indians.He developed a passive (non-violent)resistance againstinjustice called

‘Satyagraha’-atruthforce.Thismadehim tobejailedfrequently.Whenhewentbackto

Indiain1915,headvocatedfornon-violentprotestsagainsttheBritishwhoruledIndia

andreligioustolerancebetweenMuslimsandIndia.Heisrememberedasapersonwho

promotednon-violenceindifferencesbetweenracesornations.Hewasassassinatedin

January,1948whenhewaswalkinginacrowdedgardeninNewDelhitotakehisevening

prayers.Mahatmameans‘greatsoul’.

5.HenryKissinger–hewasbornin1923inGermany.In1938,heimmigratedwithhis

familytoUSA fleeingNazityranny(cruelandunjustuseofpower).Hebelievedthat

Americashouldchangeitsinternationalrelationpolicyandbecomefriendswithmany

countriesintheworldwhenhewastheUSSecretaryofStateunderPresidentNixonand

Ford.HehelpedopeningupofrelationsbetweenUSAandChinaandtheMiddleEast.He

isrememberedasagreatAmericanStatesmanwhoworkedhardtopromotepeace

throughfriendlyrelationsbetweencountries.

6.NelsonMandela–hewasborninSouthAfricain1918andstartedpoliticsin1942when

hejoinedAfricanNationalCongress.Hewaschosenasvicepresidentin1952.He

opposedtheapartheidruleinSouthAfricasinceitdidnotrespectrightsofnon-white

races.Thisledtohisarrestin1964andstayedinjailfor27years.Hewasreleasedin

1990.Afterhisrelease,hebecametheANCpresidentwhostillopposedapartheidrule.In

1996,hebecamethefirstblackpresidentofmulti-racialSouthAfrica.Heworkedtirelessly

toreconciledifferentracesinSouthAfrica.Hesignedthecountry’snewconstitutionon

December,1996whichincludedendinghumanrightsviolations.Heisremembered

asthegreatesthumanrightsactivistandreconciliator.

7.KwameNkrumah–hewasborninSouthWestofGhanain1909.HewenttoLondonin

1939 wherehewasactivein Pan African Movementthatdemanded freedom and

independenceofAfricancolonies.Hereturnedtohishomelandin1947andbecamethe

secretarygeneraloftheUnitedGoldCoastConventionwhichwasadvocatingfortheend

ofBritishruleinGhana.Hewasaninternationalsymboloffreedom becausehewasthe

firstblackleadertoshakeoffthechainsofcolonialrule.Hediedalonelymaninexile

afterbeingremovedasaleaderinacoup.

8.LeopoldSenghor–hewasapoetandthepresidentofSenegalbetween1960-1980.He

developedtheideaof‘negritude’thatisallblackpeople,whetherAfricanorAmerican

shouldbeproudoftheirheritage(culturalvaluesorachievements).

Internationalinterventionstopromoteandpreserveworldcooperation

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1.The United Nations – itpromotes peace and security.Itachieves international

cooperation by solving internationalproblems of economy,social,culture and

humanitarian.

2.TheOrganizationofAfricanUnity(OAU)–itwasestablishedon25

May,1963inAddis

Ababa,Ethiopiaandthecharteroftheorganizationwassignedby32independentstates.

ItmainlyaimedataneedtofreeAfricafromcolonialism.Itsobjectivesinclude:

a.PromoteunityandsolidarityofAfricanstates.

b.CoordinateandintensifytheircooperationtoachieveabetterlifeforAfricans.

c.Defendsovereignty,territorialintegrityandindependence.

d.EradicateallformsofcolonialisminAfrica.

e.PromoteinternationalcooperationinregardtothecharteroftheUnitedNations

andtheUniversalDeclarationofHumanRights.

IthelditsfinalsummitinJuly,2001inLusaka,Zambiawhereitannouncedadecisionof

transformingOAUtoAfricanUnion(AU).AmaraEssyofIvoryCoastwaschosenasa

leaderduringitstransitionfromOAUtoAU.Currently,ithas53Africanstates.

3.TheAssociationofSouthEastAsianNations(ASEAN)–itwasfoundedon8

August,

1967byfivecountriesnamely:Indonesia,Malaysia,ThePhilippines,Singaporeand

Thailand.ItismainlyaimedatbringingallcountriesinSEAsiatocooperateinsecuring

peace,stabilityanddevelopment.ItssecretariatisinJakarta,Indonesiaandthefollowing

arecurrentmembers:Indonesia,Malaysia,ThePhilippines,Singapore,Thailand,Brunei,

Vietnam,Myanma,LaosandCambodia.

Itsmainaimsinclude:

 Promotespoliticalandsecuritycooperation.

 Promotescooperationonissuessuchashumanresourcedevelopment,elimination

ofpoverty,diseasesandilliteracy,providingproductivejobsforlowincomegroups,

takingastrongactiontoendabuseandtrafficindrugs.Cooperationinthesefields

isknownas‘Functional‘bytheASEANleaders.

Importanceofworldcooperation

1.Promotespeacebecausewhenconflictarisesbetweencountries,theysolvethesewith

diplomacy.

2.Acceleratingdevelopmentbecausethereispeaceandthatsometradeorganizations

eliminatetradebarriersandtariffs.

3.Promotes harmony between people ofdifferentcultures,nationalities and racial

backgrounds.

4.Promotessocialjustice.

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SAMPLEESSAYQUESTIONS

2003NATIONALEXAMINATIONS

1.Explainthefactorsthatinfluencesocialandeconomicdevelopmentinacountry.(20

marks)

2.Discusstheimportanceofremovinggenderbiasesinthesociety.(20marks)

3.Describehowtheelectoralcommissionensuresthattheelectoralprocessisheldinafree

andfairatmosphere.(20marks)

2004NATIONALEXAMINATIONS

1.Discussthecommoncharacteristicsofdevelopingnations.(20marks)

2.ExplainthefactorsthatmayassisttopreventmarriagebreakdowninMalawi.(20marks)

3.Discussthepositiveeffectsofglobalizationoftheeconomyondevelopment.(20marks)

2005NATIONALEXAMINATIONS

1.Explaintheimpactofdrugandsubstanceabuseondevelopment.(20marks)

2.Describeanyfiveinstitutionsthatcanbeinstrumentalinpromotinggoodgovernancein

Malawi.(20marks)

3.Explaintheeffectsofrefugeeproblemintheworld.(20marks)

2006NATIONALEXAMINATIONS

1.Explainwithexamplesanysixeffectsofsocialinjusticeinsociety.(20marks)

2.Discussanysixfactorsthatcancontributetopopulationchangeinacountry.(20marks)

3.Explainwithexamplesanysixwaysinwhichrightsofspecialgroupscanbeviolated.(20

marks)

2007NATIONALEXAMINATIONS

1.Discussanysixfactorsthatcancontributetodiscriminationinacountry.(20marks)

2.Describeanysixrolesoffinancialinstitutionstothedevelopmentofacountry.(20marks)

3.DiscussanysixwaysthatMalawicanusetoachievegenderbalance.(20marks)

2008NATIONALEXAMINATIONS

1.Explainanysixcausesofsocialinjusticeinthesociety.(20marks)

2.Explainanysixwaysinwhichwarbetweentwoneighbouringcountriesmayaffect

developmentinthecountries.(20marks)

3.Explain anysixwaysinwhich counsellingforHIV/AIDS patientsandguardiansis

important.(20marks)

‘AjourneyofaThousandmilesbeginswithasinglestep.’Getoriginalcopy0996564395/0881399843Page77

2009NATIONALEXAMINATIONS

1.Discussanysixfactorsthatcancontributetotechnologicaldevelopmentinacountry.(20

marks)

2.Explainanysixfactorsthatshouldbeconsideredwhenprovidingsocialservicestothe

community.(20marks)

3.Describeanysixrolesplayedbyinstitutionsofthecivilsocietyinacountry.(20marks)

2010NATIONALEXAMINATIONS

1.Explainanysixrolesplayedbythestate.(20marks)

2.DiscussanysixstrategiesthatareusedtopreservecultureinMalawi.(20marks)

3.Explainanysixwaysinwhichpromotionofsocialjusticeisimportantintheworld.(20

marks)

2011NATIONALEXAMINATIONS

1.Explainanysixproblemsfacedintheimplementationofconventionsfortheprotectionof

specialgroups.(20marks)

2.Describeanysixsocialandethicalvaluesthatcontributetointernationalcooperation.(20

marks)

3.Explainanysixfactorsthatcanassistintheeconomicdevelopmentofacountry.(20

marks)

2013NATIONALEXAMINATIONS

1.Discussanysixcasesofviolationsofhumanrightsforspecialgroups.(20marks)

2.Explain any six ways in which developing countries benefit from international

organizations.(20marks)

3.Discussanysixfactorsthatencouragemulticulturalisminacountry.(20marks)